On First Principles 3.1.24–3.2.7

But since the apostle's words, in what he says about vessels of honour or dishonour, that “if anyone cleanses himself, he will be a vessel for honour, sanctified and useful to the Lord, prepared for every good work,” seem to place nothing in God but everything in us, while in the words, “The potter has power to make from the same lump one vessel for honour and another for dishonour,” he seems to refer everything to God, these must not be taken as contrary to each other, but both senses must be brought together and one understanding made out of the two: namely, that we should neither think that the things in our choice can be accomplished without the help of God, nor think that the things in God's hand are brought to completion without our acts and efforts and purpose. That is, we do not have it in our own choice to will or to accomplish anything in such a way that we need not know that this very ability to will or to accomplish has been given us by God, according to the distinction we made above; nor again, when God fashions “vessels, some for honour and some for dishonour,” must it be thought that he has our wills or purposes or merits as a kind of material, the cause of honour or dishonour, from which he fashions each of us either “for honour” or “for dishonour,” while the movement of the soul and the purpose of the mind suggest of themselves to him, from whom the heart and the thought of the mind are not hidden, whether its vessel ought to be fashioned “for honour” or “for dishonour.” But let these things suffice that we have discussed, as best we could, concerning the questions of free choice.

We must now see, according to the Scriptures, how the opposing powers, or the devil himself, struggle against the human race, provoking and inciting it to sin. First, in Genesis the serpent is described as having led Eve astray; concerning which, in the Ascension of Moses, a little book that the apostle Jude mentions in his epistle, the archangel Michael, disputing with the devil about the body of Moses, says that the serpent, inspired by the devil, was the cause of the transgression of Adam and Eve. Some also ask who the angel is who speaks from heaven to Abraham, saying: "Now I know that you fear God, and you have not spared your beloved son, whom you loved, for my sake." For he is plainly described as an angel, who says that he knew then that Abraham feared God and had not spared his beloved son, as Scripture says; but he did not declare that it was for God's sake, but for his own, that is, for the one who said this. We must also inquire about the one of whom it is said in Exodus that he wished to kill Moses because he was going into Egypt; and afterwards, who is the one called the destroying angel; and also who is the one written of in Leviticus as Apopompaeus, that is, 'the one who sends away', of whom Scripture says: "One lot for the Lord, and one lot for Apopompaeus," that is, the sender-away. In the first book of Kingdoms, too, an evil spirit is said to choke Saul. And in the third book the prophet Micaiah says: "I saw the Lord of Israel sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven stood around him, on his right and on his left. And the Lord said: Who will deceive Ahab king of Israel, that he may go up and fall at Ramoth Gilead? And one said this, and another said that. A spirit came out and stood before the Lord and said: I will deceive him. And the Lord said to him: By what means? And he said: I will go out and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And he said: You shall deceive him, and indeed you shall prevail. Go out, then, and do so quickly. And now the Lord has put a lying spirit in the mouth of all your prophets; the Lord has spoken evil against you." By this it is clearly shown that a certain spirit chose by its own will and purpose to deceive and to work falsehood, which the Lord made use of for the death of Ahab, who deserved to suffer this. In the first book of Chronicles also: "The devil Satan stirred up Israel, and incited David to number the people." In the Psalms an evil angel is said to afflict certain people. In Ecclesiastes, too, Solomon says: "If the spirit of one who has power rises up against you, do not leave your place, for healing will check many sins." In Zechariah we read of the devil standing at the right hand of Jesus and resisting him. Isaiah says that the sword of the Lord rises up against the dragon, the crooked serpent. And what shall I say of Ezekiel, who in his second vision prophesies most plainly to the prince of Tyre about the opposing power, and who says that the dragon dwells in the rivers of Egypt? And the whole book written about Job, what else does it contain than an account of the devil, who asks that power be given him over all that Job has, and over his sons, and even over his body? Yet he is overcome through Job's patience. In that book the Lord taught many things in his answers about the power of this dragon that opposes us. These things, meanwhile, as far as they could come to mind at present, have been said from the Old Testament about how the opposing powers are either named in the Scriptures or said to oppose the human race, and are to be punished afterwards. Let us look also at the New Testament, where Satan comes to the Saviour, tempting him; and the evil spirits and unclean demons that had besieged certain people were driven by the Saviour from the bodies of the sufferers, who are said to have been set free by him. Judas too, when the devil had already put it into his heart to betray Christ, afterwards received Satan wholly into himself; for it is written that after the morsel Satan entered into him. And the apostle Paul teaches us that we should not give place to the devil, but, he says, "put on the armour of God, that you may be able to resist the wiles of the devil," indicating that the saints' struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against principalities, against powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against the spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places. He also says that the Saviour was crucified by the rulers of this world, who are coming to nothing, whose wisdom he also says he does not speak. Through all these things, then, divine Scripture teaches us that there are certain invisible enemies fighting against us, and that we must arm ourselves against them. Hence the simpler of those who believe in the Lord Christ think that all the sins people commit come about from these opposing powers pressing on the minds of sinners, because in that invisible contest the powers are found to be superior; so that if, for example, there were no devil, no human being would sin at all.

But we, looking at the reasoning more clearly, do not think this is so, considering the things that come plainly from bodily necessity. Are we to think that the devil is the cause of our being hungry or thirsty? I think no one would dare to affirm it. If then he is not the cause of our hunger and thirst, what else [is he the cause of] when a person's age has reached the time of manhood and the incentives of natural heat have prompted him? It follows without doubt that, as the devil is not the cause of hunger and thirst, so neither is he the cause of that motion which nature prompts at a mature age, that is, the desire for intercourse. It is certain that this cause is by no means always stirred up by the devil, as if we had to think that, if there were no devil, bodies would have no desire for such union. Then let us consider whether, if, as we showed above, food is sought by people not from the devil but by a kind of natural instinct, it could happen, if there were no devil, that human experience would use such discipline in taking food as never to exceed the measure at all, that is, never to take it otherwise than the matter required or in greater quantity than reason allowed, and that it would never happen to people to err in keeping to the measure and limit of food. I for my part do not think that people could have kept this, even if no instigation of the devil had provoked them, so that no one would exceed the measure and discipline in taking food, before they had learned it by long use and experience. What then? In food and drink it was possible for us to sin even without the devil's incitements, if we happened to be found less self-controlled or less careful; and are we to think that in desiring intercourse, or in tempering the natural desires, we should not suffer something similar? I think the same line of reasoning can be applied to the other natural motions as well, of desire, or anger, or sadness, or in all things whatever that exceed the limit of natural measure through the vice of intemperance. The reasoning is plain, then: as in good things the human purpose by itself alone is incomplete for the accomplishment of the good, for it is brought to perfection by divine help, so also in the contrary we receive certain beginnings, and as it were certain seeds of sins, from the things we naturally use. But when we have indulged beyond what is enough and have not resisted the first motions of intemperance, then the hostile power, seizing the opening given by this first fault, incites and presses us in every way, striving to spread sins more widely; we human beings provide the occasions and beginnings of sins, while the hostile powers propagate them more widely and further, and, if possible, without any end. So, finally, the fall into avarice comes about: at first people desire a little money; then, as the vice grows, greed increases. After this, when blindness of mind has also followed from the passion, with the hostile powers prompting and pressing, money is no longer desired but seized, and acquired by violence or even by the shedding of human blood. For a surer proof that these monstrous excesses of vice come from demons, it can easily be seen that those who are driven by immoderate loves, or by uncontrolled anger, or by excessive sadness, suffer no less than those who are vexed bodily by demons. For it is reported in some histories that some people fell into madness from love, others from anger, not a few from sadness or from excessive joy; which I think happens because these opposing powers, that is, demons, having been given a place in their minds, which intemperance had first opened, took full possession of their senses, especially when no glory of virtue had roused them to resist.

That there are some sins which do not come from the opposing powers but take their beginning from the natural motions of the body, the apostle Paul declares most plainly where he says: "The flesh lusts against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh; these resist each other, so that you do not do the things you wish." If, then, the flesh lusts against the spirit and the spirit against the flesh, we have at times a struggle against flesh and blood, that is, when we are merely human and walk according to the flesh, and when we cannot be tempted with greater temptations than human ones, as is said of us: "Let no temptation take hold of you but what is human. But God is faithful, who will not let you be tempted beyond what you are able." For as those who preside over the games do not let those who come to the contest engage each other at random or by chance, but with careful examination of their bodies or ages match them with the fairest pairing, this one with that, for example boys with boys and men with men, who are close to one another in age or strength; so we must understand of divine providence too, that it disposes with the most just moderation all who descend into these contests of human life, according to the strength of each, which he alone knows who alone sees the hearts of men: so that one fights against such flesh and another against such, one for so long a time and another for so long, and one is incited by the flesh to this or that, another to something else; and so that one resists this or that hostile power, another two or three at once, or now one and now another, at a certain time this one and at another time that one, or after certain deeds against some and after others against others. Consider whether something of this kind is not indicated by what the apostle says, "God is faithful, who will not let you be tempted beyond what you are able," that is, because each is tempted in proportion to the amount or capacity of his strength. Yet because we have said that by the just judgment of God each one is tempted in proportion to the amount of his strength, it must not therefore be thought that the one who is tempted must conquer in every way; just as the one who strives in the games, although he has been matched with his opponent with fair equality and moderation, cannot always conquer. But unless the strength of the contestants is equal, the victor's palm will not be just, nor will the loser be justly blamed. Therefore God allows us to be tempted, but not beyond what we are able; for we are tempted according to our strength. Nor is it written that he will make with the temptation a way out of enduring, but a way out, that we may be able to endure; that is, he himself grants that we may be able to endure. But whether we fulfil vigorously or idly this ability he has given us is up to us. For there is no doubt that in every temptation the strength to bear it is present to us, if only we use the strength granted us properly. For to have the strength to conquer is not the same as to conquer, as the apostle himself indicated with very careful wording, saying that "God will give a way out, that you may be able to endure," not "that you will endure." For many do not endure but are overcome in temptation. What is given by God is not that we endure, otherwise there would seem to be no contest at all, but that we may be able to endure. And the strength that is given us so that we may be able to conquer we use, according to the faculty of free choice, either diligently, and we conquer, or idly, and we are overcome. For if this were given us entirely, that we should prevail in every way and never be overcome, what reason for contending would remain for one who cannot be overcome? Or what merit is there in the palm, where the faculty of resisting and of conquering is taken away? But if the possibility of conquering is offered equally to all of us, and it is placed in our power how we are to use this possibility, that is, diligently or idly, then the fault of the vanquished and the palm of the victor will be just. From the things we have discussed as well as we could, I think it has clearly appeared that there are some offences that we commit without malign powers pressing us, and others to which we are provoked by their instigation to a certain excess and lack of measure. Hence it follows that we must now inquire how these opposing powers work these incitements in us.

The thoughts that proceed from our heart, or the memory of any deeds whatever, or the contemplation of any things and causes, we find sometimes proceed from ourselves, sometimes are stirred up by opposing powers, and at times are also sent in by God or by holy angels. But this may perhaps seem fabulous unless it is proved by the testimonies of divine Scripture. That thought arises from ourselves, David testifies in the Psalms, saying: "For the thought of man shall confess to you, and the remnants of thought shall keep festival to you." That it is also usually done by opposing powers, Solomon testifies in Ecclesiastes thus: "If the spirit of one who has power rises up against you, do not leave your place; for healing will check many sins." And the apostle Paul will give testimony of the same, saying: "Destroying thoughts and every height that exalts itself against the knowledge of Christ." That it happens from God, David likewise testifies in the Psalms, saying: "Blessed is the man whose help is from you, O Lord; ascents are in his heart." And the apostle says that God put it in the heart of Titus. That some things are suggested to human hearts through angels, whether good or evil, is shown both by the angel who accompanied Tobias and by the word of the prophet who says, "And the angel who spoke in me answered." The book of the Shepherd also declares the same, saying that two angels accompany each human being, and that if good thoughts arise in our heart they are suggested by the good angel, but if contrary ones, they are the instigation of the evil angel. Barnabas declares the same in his epistle, when he says there are two ways, one of light and the other of darkness, over which, he says, certain angels preside: over the way of light, the angels of God; over the way of darkness, the angels of Satan. Yet we must think that nothing else happens to us from the things suggested to our heart, good or evil, except only a movement and incitement provoking us either to good or to evil. It is possible for us, when a malign power has begun to incite us to evil, to cast the depraved suggestions away from us and to resist the worst persuasions and to do nothing at all that is blameworthy. And again it is possible that, when a divine power has called us to better things, we do not follow, the power of free choice being preserved to us in both cases. We said above that certain memories of good or evil things are also suggested to us, whether by divine providence or by the opposing powers; as is shown in the book of Esther, when Artaxerxes had not remembered the services of that most just man Mordecai, and, wearied by sleepless nights, was brought by God to remember to ask for the records of past events committed to writing; and, reminded in them of Mordecai's services, he ordered his enemy Haman to be hanged, and conferred on Mordecai himself magnificent honours, and on the whole nation of the saints salvation when danger was already imminent. But by the contrary power of the devil we must think it was suggested to the memory of the chief priests and scribes when they came to Pilate and said, "Lord, we remember how that deceiver said while he was still alive, After three days I will rise." And what Judas thought about the betrayal of the Lord and Saviour did not come from the malice of his own mind alone; for Scripture testifies that the devil had already put it into his heart to betray him. Therefore Solomon rightly commanded, saying, "Keep your heart with all diligence"; and the apostle Paul says, "We ought to give the more earnest heed to what we have heard, lest perhaps we drift away"; and when he says, "Do not give place to the devil," he shows by this that by a certain deed, or by a certain sloth of mind, place is given to the devil, so that once he has entered our heart he either takes possession of us or at least pollutes the soul, if he cannot wholly possess it, when he hurls his fiery darts at us; by these we are sometimes wounded, the wound going deep, and sometimes only set on fire. Rarely indeed, and in a few people, are these fiery darts of his quenched so that they find no place to wound, that is, when someone is covered with the strongest and most powerful shield of faith. But what is said in the Epistle to the Ephesians, "For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against the spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places," must be understood thus: "our" means mine, Paul's, and yours, the Ephesians', and of all whose struggle is not with flesh and blood. For these have a contest against principalities and powers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world; not as it was for the Corinthians, whose contest was still against flesh and blood, and whom no temptation had seized but what was human.

Yet we must not think that each individual contends against all these. For I think it impossible for any human being, however holy he may be, to be able to wage a contest against all these at once. And if this should somehow happen, which certainly cannot be, it is impossible that human nature could bear it at all without its utter overthrow. But just as, for example, if some fifty soldiers say that a battle with fifty others is imminent for them, it is not to be understood that one of them is to fight against fifty, but each of them rightly says, "We have a battle against fifty," all of them, however, against all; so too we must hear what the apostle says, that all the athletes and soldiers of Christ have a struggle and a contest against all these things that have been listed: all of them, but each singly, either in a contest to come with single opponents, or at least as shall have been approved by God, the just president of the contest himself. For I think there is a certain measure to human nature, even if it is Paul, of whom it is said, "This man is a chosen vessel to me," or Peter, against whom the gates of hell do not prevail, or Moses, the friend of God; none of whom could at all endure the whole troop of opposing powers at once without some ruin to himself, unless perhaps the power of him alone were at work in him who said, "Take courage, I have overcome the world." Because of him Paul too said confidently, "I can do all things in Christ who strengthens me"; and again, "I laboured more than all of them, yet not I, but the grace of God with me." Because of this power, then, which is certainly not human, working and speaking in him, Paul said: "But I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height nor depth, nor power, nor any other creature will be able to separate us from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus our Lord." For I do not think that human nature alone by itself can wage a contest against angels, and heights and depths, and any other creature; but when it has felt the Lord present and dwelling in it, it will say in confidence of divine help: "The Lord is my light and my Saviour; whom shall I fear? The Lord is the protector of my life; of whom shall I be afraid? When evildoers draw near against me to eat my flesh, my enemies who afflict me, they themselves are weakened and have fallen. If an army should encamp against me, my heart shall not fear; if war should rise against me, in this will I hope." Hence I think that a human being can perhaps never overcome an opposing power by himself unless he has made use of divine help. Hence the angel too is said to have “wrestled” with Jacob. We understand this to mean that it is not the same for the angel to have wrestled with Jacob as against Jacob; rather, the one who was present to him for the sake of his salvation, and who, when he knew his progress, also gave him the name Israel, wrestles with him, that is, is with him in the contest and helps him in the fight; while without doubt there was another against whom he fought and against whom his contest was waged. Indeed Paul did not say that our wrestling is with principalities or with powers, but against principalities and powers. Hence, even if Jacob wrestled, he without doubt wrestled against one of those powers which Paul declares oppose the human race, and especially the saints, and stir up contests. That is why Scripture says of him that he wrestled with an angel and prevailed with God; so that the struggle of the contest was sustained by the help of an angel, while the palm of perfection brings the victor to God.

Nor must we suppose that such contests are carried on by bodily strength and the exercises of the wrestling school; rather, the fight is of spirit against spirit, just as Paul indicates that our contest is against principalities and powers and the rulers of the darkness of this world. The very form of these contests must be understood thus: when losses, when dangers, when insults, when accusations are stirred up against us, the hostile powers do not aim at this, that we should merely suffer these things, but that through them we should be provoked either to great anger, or to excessive sadness, or to utter despair; or, what is worse, that, worn out and overcome by weariness, we should be driven to complain against God, as if he did not govern human life fairly and justly; so that through this we may be weakened in faith, or fall away from hope, or be compelled to abandon the truth of the doctrines and be persuaded to think something impious about God. For some such things are written about Job, when the devil asked God to be given power over his goods. Through this we are also taught that we are not assailed by chance attacks when such losses of property strike us, and that it is not by chance that one of our family is led away captive, or that the collapse of houses in which our dear ones are crushed happens. In all these each of the faithful ought to say, "You would have no power against me, unless it had been given you from above." For see that the house of Job would not have fallen upon his sons unless the devil had first received power against them; nor would the horsemen have rushed in three companies to carry off his camels or oxen and other animals, had they not been driven by that spirit to which they had bound themselves as servants by the obedience of their own purpose; nor would that which seemed to be fire, or what was thought to be lightning, have fallen on Job's sheep, before the devil said to God: "Have you not fenced around all that is his, outside and within? But now put forth your hand and touch all that he has, and see if he does not bless you to your face."

From all these it is shown that all the things that happen in this world which are reckoned indifferent, whether they are sad or of whatever kind, are not done by God, and yet not without God; for God not only does not prevent the malign and opposing powers that wish to work such things, but even permits them to do them, though only at certain times and to certain persons; as is said of Job himself, that for a certain time he was appointed to fall under others, and his house to be plundered by the wicked. Therefore divine Scripture teaches us to receive all things that happen to us as brought on us by God, knowing that nothing happens without God. And that this is so, that is, that nothing happens without God, how can we doubt, when the Lord and Saviour declares and says: "Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? And not one of them will fall to the ground without your Father who is in heaven"? But necessity has drawn us to wander a little further in discussing the struggle of the opposing powers which they wage against human beings, and the sadder things that befall the human race, that is, the trials of this life, as Job says, "Is not the whole life of man on earth a trial?", so that it might be set out more clearly how these things happen and how piously we ought to think about them. Now let us see how people also slip into the sin of false knowledge, or with what aim the opposing powers are accustomed to stir up battles against us concerning these things as well.