Commentary on 1 Corinthians

Prologue. Admonished by the Lord's command, the Apostle stayed among the Corinthians for one year and six months, teaching the word of God among them. This is why he deals with them with great confidence and with the affection of love, sometimes admonishing, sometimes rebuking, sometimes coaxing, as with sons. For there are many reasons why he writes to them. The first of them is this: that, disagreeing with one another in the manner of heretics and devoted to men, they wished to be called Paulines and Petrines and Apollonians, not Christians; and this the Apostle strongly reproaches. Yet there were among them some who disagreed with these, dedicated to Christ alone. The second is that they had begun to delight in eloquence and in earthly philosophy, so that under the name of Christ they were being steeped in things that are contrary to the faith. The third, that they were puffed up because the Apostle was not coming to them. The fourth, because of the fornicator whom they allowed to be among them. The fifth, to remind them of the earlier letter which he had written before this one, which is called the first. The sixth, because they had begun to do wrongs and frauds to one another, and preferred to seek the judgments of unbelievers. The seventh reason is the one in which he shows that it was lawful for him to accept support but that he disdained it, so as not to be a pattern for the rapacious false apostles. The eighth is to answer their letter; for they had begun to be troubled by heretics about marriages. The ninth is the one in which he declares that each one ought to remain as he was when he believed. The tenth concerns virgins, because he had received no command about them. And the remaining reasons will be seen in the body of the letter. Chapter one.

“Paul, called an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God.” He began otherwise to the Romans, because the occasion is different. To these he writes that he is an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, because all that he did, he did by the will of the Son of God, who said to him: “Go, I will send you far away to the gentiles” (Acts 22:21). Then he was called an apostle, that is, sent to the gentiles by the will of God. By this he also touches those whom Christ had not sent, and what they said was not true. He names God and Christ frequently for this reason: to show that Christ, as God, is not the Father himself, but that Christ is the Son, and that God the Father also exists, not a single undivided person, when the Son is shown to be so called. For many sects had arisen which asserted the gospel of Christ at the discretion of their own understanding, of which withered branches survive even now, and whose champions were overturning the churches. Hence the Apostle sets down everything that is contrary to the heresies, and affirms that he is a true preacher because he was sent by Christ by the will of God.

“And Sosthenes our brother.” He commends this man too by associating him with himself. “To the church of God which is at Corinth, to those sanctified in Christ Jesus.” He writes to the church because rulers had not yet been appointed in the individual churches. And though he rebukes them in many things, he says, “to those sanctified in Christ Jesus”; but he says so because, reborn in Christ, they were sanctified, though afterwards they had begun to live badly; so as to show that the whole church had been sanctified in Christ, but that some of them had been turned away from the tradition of the truth by the perverse teaching of the false apostles. “Called to be saints.” That is, you have been called to be holy: which means, so that you do not depart from the rule of sanctification. “With all who call on the name of the Lord Jesus Christ in every place, theirs and ours.” That is, he joins the gentiles with the true Jews, because salvation is from the Jews; so that in every place where there are gentiles who call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, and where there are the Jews mentioned above, all likewise are one. For the false apostles, who preached the name of Christ through the wisdom of the world, that is, with philosophy mixed in, rejected the old law and the prophets; for they denied that Christ was truly crucified, but said that he only seemed to be crucified, like Marcion and Manichaeus. Hence the Apostle says: “But we preach Christ crucified” (1 Cor 1:23). Nor did they confess the resurrection of the flesh, which the prophet Isaiah proclaims, saying: “Those who are in the tombs will rise” (Isa 26:19).

“Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.” Since he had said, “who call on the name of our Lord Jesus Christ”, so that he might not seem to have passed over either the name or the gift of the Father, and perhaps give rise to suspicion or occasion for the idea of a 'union' of persons, he teaches that Christ is rightly to be called upon, but that all grace is the Father's; so as both to show the two, who are one through divinity, and to put forward the Father's authority.

“I give thanks to my God always for you.” Although he writes to all in the church, he so indicates his meaning, when he sometimes reproves and sometimes praises, that each one, when the letter is read, may understand what is said for him and what against him. For in one congregation he writes to two peoples, so that when he rebukes, those who behave badly may know that these things are written for them; and likewise when he praises, the one who remains in the rule may know that these things are said to him. And so he says: “I give thanks to my God always for you, for the grace of God which has been given you in Christ Jesus.” He says that grace has been given by God in Christ Jesus, which grace has been given in Christ Jesus in this way: that it was established by God that whoever believes in Christ should be saved without works: by faith alone he receives forgiveness of sins freely.

“For in everything you have been enriched in him, in all speech and in all knowledge.” This means that, in the grace they had received and in the word of the truth of the teaching, they attained spiritual knowledge and persevered in it; and therefore he gives thanks to God for them.

“Just as the testimony of Christ has been confirmed in you.” The testimony of Christ has been confirmed in them, because, strengthened in faith, they hoped for nothing from men; all their hope was in Christ, and they were caught by no enticements of pleasure.

“So that you lack no grace, as you wait for the revelation of our Lord Jesus Christ.” It is plain that one who is watchful and careful waits for the day of judgment. He speaks of the future judgment of God, in which our Lord will be revealed both to the faithful and to the unfaithful: so that the unbelievers may recognize and know that what they refused to believe is true, and perish; while the faithful rejoice, finding more good than they had thought.

“Who will also confirm you to the end without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” Confident with an eager mind in their hope, he is secure, because they will remain unharmed until the future judgment. For those who could not be changed amid so many dangers of opinions and the disturbances of differences show beyond doubt that they will remain the same. In praising these, he invites those who had been corrupted in the error of the false apostles: for while he proclaims the faith of these, he calls those to repentance.

“God is faithful, through whom you were called into the fellowship of his Son Jesus Christ our Lord.” Who could doubt the promises and the faithfulness of God, that it will be no otherwise than he said: that we who believe in Christ are sons adopted to himself? For he gives us what we believe: so that, because we believe that Christ is the Son of God, we begin to be this ourselves, to remain in the same dignity as Christ remains, whom we believe to be the Son of God. For fellowship is brotherhood; so that, just as he shows that God's faithfulness will remain unimpaired for us in this matter, so we may not be found distrustful and faithless, but persevering in the adoption.

“Now I beseech you, brothers, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that you all say the same thing.” He now begs all to think one thing, namely that in which, reborn, they were called sons of God. He speaks now to the whole church, so that those who had begun to disagree might return to the faith they had begun, which they saw praised in those who persevered in it. “And let there be no divisions among you, but be perfect in the same mind and in the same knowledge.” He wants them to be perfect in the same mind which he had handed on to them, so that they might not differ. For he calls these to the example of those whom he praises above, that they may think and defend this.

“For it has been reported to me about you, brothers, by those of Chloe, that there are quarrels among you.” Although they had been overturned, he still calls them brothers; just as in the prophet Isaiah God speaks to those who were with him, that they should say to those who believed the false prophets: “You will be our brothers” (Isa 66:5); so that by this they might not separate themselves from them, as from brothers. As for his saying “by those of Chloe”, to some they seem to be people remaining and bearing fruit in the faith of God; to some it seems to be a place, as if one said “by those who are at Antioch”; but to others it seems that she was a woman devoted to God, with whom there were many who worshipped God, whose word was not to be doubted; so that what they reported about the Corinthians was true, that there were quarrels among them. He said there were quarrels among them to show the diversity of their mind regarding the Lord's discipline. And what it was he added, saying:

“Now I say this, that each of you says: 'I am of Paul', 'but I of Apollos', 'and I of Cephas', 'but I of Christ'.” He shows the error, but did not reveal the names of its authors; for they did not stay in one place, but went about for the overturning of the simple. For those whom he names were without doubt good teachers; but under their guise he touches the false apostles. For if he denies that one should glory in these, how much more in bad teachers, whose perverse teaching he indicates in those he substitutes for them! Yet among them he marks out as persevering those who said that they were Christ's, not a man's, whom he praises above.

“Christ is divided.” He says Christ is divided because men have shared out his glory among themselves. Just as heretics who do not shrink from being called Photinians, or Arians, or Cataphrygians, or Novatians, or Donatists, or Manichees, so the Corinthians too had begun to submit themselves to the names of various heretics, so that they seemed to venerate men in place of Christ; and in receiving different things about Christ they divide Christ. For one accepts Christ as a man only; another confesses him as pure God, without humanity or body; another says Christ was foretold through the prophets; another denies that the prophets spoke of Christ. Since, then, Christ is one, God and man, these, each claiming one part or another of him for himself, divide Christ; and because they make many churches under their own names, he added: “Was Paul crucified for you?” He began with himself so that it would not be thought that he refuted the persons of others in order to commend his own. “For if Christ”, he says, “died for us, how do we ascribe his grace and benefit to men, to his injury?” “Or were you baptized in the name of Paul?” “If we are baptized believing in Christ”, he says, “so that we may be justified in his name, why do we make men the authors of this faith for ourselves, forgetful of the belief we began with?”

“I thank God that I baptized none of you except Crispus and Gaius, so that no one may say that I baptized in my name. I also baptized the household of Stephanas; beyond that I do not know whether I baptized anyone else.” He gives thanks to God that he did not baptize many of them; so that, since an error had arisen on this matter, the error might not be found in many from his own name; by this both baptizers and baptized are to be rebuked, who, to the Saviour's injury, ascribed the grace of his baptism to men, while the baptizers connived for the sake of glory. For they were then as the Novatians and Donatists are now, who claim baptism for themselves, rejecting those baptized by us; and those baptized by them glory in their persons. In short, having renounced the name of Christ, they glory in being called Novatians and Donatists. Crispus and Gaius, then, are Corinthians whom he names as witnesses, because they were baptized by the Apostle in such a way that they did not claim that any glory should be given him on that account. The household of Stephanas are the firstfruits of Achaia, as he indicates in the last part of the letter, to whom he bears witness that they had devoted themselves to the service of the saints.

“For Christ did not send me to baptize but to preach the gospel.” Since to preach the gospel is greater than to baptize, he says that he was not sent to baptize but to preach the gospel; for in the bishop is the dignity of all orders, since he is the head of the other members. By this he also humbles those to whom they gave much because they had been baptized by them; so that from this they might know that baptizing is no great thing, since not everyone who baptizes is also fit to preach the gospel. For the words said in baptism are fixed formulas. Indeed the apostle Peter ordered Cornelius, when he believed, to be baptized with his household (Acts 10:48), and did not deign to do this work himself, since ministers were standing by; for if they had been absent, he would have done it himself, compelled by necessity. He shows, then, how much better he is than those whom they venerated; and yet he did not allow this to be ascribed to his name, knowing it is dangerous to claim God's glory for a man's name; for it is a kind of idolatry. “Not in wisdom of word, so that the cross of Christ may not be emptied.” Because Christian preaching does not need the pomp and adornment of speech, fishermen, unlearned men, were chosen to preach the gospel, so that the truth of the teaching might commend itself, with power as its witness; lest it should seem acceptable through the cunning and craft of human wisdom rather than by truth, like the disciplines invented by men, in which not reason, not power, but an arrangement of words is sought. And so whoever wishes to adorn the faith of Christ with words seeks his own glory. For he obscures it with the splendour of words, so that not it but he himself is praised; just as the false apostles, so as not to seem foolish to the worldly-wise, preached Christ in human wisdom in two ways: by devoting themselves to eloquence, and by avoiding the things that the world judges foolish in us; so that they taught neither that the Son of God was incarnate and born of the Virgin, nor the future resurrection of the flesh, because the wisdom and reason of the world judges this foolish. And so the Apostle says that he does not preach Christ in human wisdom, “so that”, he says, “the cross of Christ may not be emptied”; because whoever announces Christ in human wisdom denies the truth of the preaching, as I mentioned above.

“For the word of the cross is foolishness to those who are perishing.” It is plain that those to whom the cross of Christ is foolishness are in perdition, for they have not been rescued from the death of the underworld.

“But to those who are being saved it is the power of God.” It is not obscure that to those who believe it is the power of God; for they believe that the cross of Christ is not weakness but power, understanding that death was conquered on the cross; and those who have its sign are saved, because they cannot be held by death. “For it is written in Isaiah: I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and the understanding of the prudent I will reject” (Isa 29:14). He destroys the wisdom of the wise when he does the things that it says cannot be done; and he rejects the understanding of the prudent when he proves that God, whom they call unconcerned, has undertaken the things they think foolish, that the Son of God, incarnate of the Virgin, should be crucified for human salvation; and he attests that this was truly done by power, not by words.

“Where is the wise man? Where is the scribe? Where is the investigator of this age?” With these words he inveighs against Jews as much as gentiles; for both the scribes of the Jews and the teachers of the law think it foolish to believe that God has a Son; in the same way the gentiles also count this a matter for laughter. But the Jews distrust it because it is not so plainly indicated in the law, while the gentiles distrust it because the reasoning of the world does not admit it; for it says that nothing can come about without intercourse, and judges it foolish. The investigator of the age, however, is the one who decides by calculation that the world is driven by the constellations, and that risings and settings happen by the twelve signs, thinking that nothing at all can happen without their motion. “Has not God made foolish the wisdom of this world?” The wisdom of this world has been made foolish; for, thinking itself wise, it has been found imprudent. For what it judged impossible has been shown to be possible, while it supposed God unconcerned. Is anything more foolish than this assertion, that he should be said to have made the world and not to care for it? Why did he make it, if what he made does not concern him? But because they see some enjoying the world happily, others being oppressed, those who act well being despised and the malicious glorying, they therefore believed that God is unconcerned. Whoever says God is unconcerned does not deny that he is malicious or unjust; for either he will judge the world, or he is unjust, overlooking the good and allowing evil to be done. If, then, they would consider the matter with their hatred of the divine law laid aside, they could see that this question is settled by us, who await the judgment of God, in which those oppressed by force will be exalted and the violent humbled; because there is no respect of persons with God (Rom 2:11).

“For since, in the wisdom of God, the world did not know God through wisdom, it pleased God through the foolishness of preaching to save those who believe.” The world, that is, mankind, did not know God in his wisdom, because they gave his unique majesty to figments or to the elements, ignoring him, and thinking through the wisdom of the flesh that the things that are seen ought to be worshipped. Therefore it pleased God to ordain a preaching that would seem foolishness to them, so that those who believe what they distrust might be saved, while they are condemned. This, then, is the reversal by which, through God's counsel, the false is condemned by the true.

“Since Jews ask for signs, and Greeks seek wisdom.” The Jews ask for signs, because they do not doubt that it could have been done, but ask whether it has been done; for they know that Aaron's dry rod budded and bore fruit (Num 17:8), and that Jonah, swallowed by the whale, was in its belly three days and three nights and was cast out alive (Jonah 2). Yet above all they seek to see something such as Moses saw, God in fire; whence they say: “We know that God spoke to Moses” (John 9:29); though it is a greater thing that Lazarus, dead and stinking, came out of the tomb alive on the fourth day (John 11:44). The Greeks, however, seek wisdom, because they will not listen to anything except what is possible by the reasoning of the world.

“But we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to the Jews and foolishness to the gentiles.” It is a stumbling block to the Jews when they hear that Christ professed himself the Son of God and set the sabbath aside; but foolishness to the gentiles, because they hear things preached which, since they do not agree with worldly reason, seem senseless, such as the Virgin's giving birth and the resurrection of the dead.

“But to those who are called, Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God.” Persuaded by power, which is stronger than words, those who believe in Christ understand, the Jews first, who sought a sign, that Christ is the power of God; and the Greeks likewise see that Christ is the wisdom of God, and that the worldly wisdom which they formerly thought prudence is the greatest foolishness. He is, then, the power of God, because through him God the Father made all things; and wisdom because through him God is known. For God could not be known except through one who is from him; for “no one has known or seen the Father except the Son, and he to whom the Son wishes to reveal him” (Matt 11:27). “For what is foolish of God is wiser than men.” He says “the foolishness of God” not because it is truly foolish, but because it is thought foolish by men, since it does not fit worldly reasoning, though it is a spiritual reasoning; and therefore it is recognized as wiser than men, because spiritual things are wiser than carnal things. For spiritual things do not exist through carnal things, but carnal things subsist through spiritual ones; and therefore carnal things are subject to spiritual. “And what is weak of God is stronger than men.” Without doubt heavenly things conquer earthly. Therefore the weakness of God is not weakness, because the weakness of Christ is a great victory. For he conquered when he seemed conquered, as it says in the fiftieth Psalm: “And that you may conquer when you are judged” (Ps 50:6). For one who is unjustly killed comes out the victor, making his killer guilty. “For consider your calling, brothers: that not many are wise according to the flesh, not many powerful, not many noble.” It is plain that those are few who are puffed up rather than learned by the reasonings of the world, that is, who inspect and distinguish the motions of the stars. He calls the same people strong according to the flesh whom he also calls wise. And they are strong because they assert that Christ's passion is weak; for iniquity is strong and seems to itself to conquer for a time. They are also noble, those through whom they assign the origin of their superstition to antiquity, calling us new-fangled. God did not, then, choose this assertion, which is held by few.

“But God chose the foolish things of the world to confound the wise.” The foolish things of the world are that a Virgin gave birth and that the Son of God was crucified; for the world thinks it foolish to believe this. Therefore God, to confound the world, chose those who believe what it judges foolish. For the wise are confounded when they see many confess what a few deny; for there is no doubt that the opinions of many are preferred to the opinions of a few. “And God chose the weak things of the world to confound the strong.” The sense is the same: what a few think weak, those who consider themselves prudent in the world, distrusting the hope, is asserted by many to be power; because more believe than do not believe, to their shame. For they see the weak things of Christ, when named, command demons and work wonders; but to the world, which does not know that these things serve power, the insults and the passion of the Saviour are weak things; for he allowed himself to suffer these things so that he might conquer death. For to suffer unjustly, and to be able to resist and not to wish to, is the glory of the sufferer and the condemnation of the killer.

“And God chose the ignoble and contemptible things of this world, and the things that are not, to destroy the things that are.” He chose ignoble and contemptible things, then: not because they are truly ignoble and contemptible, but they are so judged by the world, because they spurn worldly reasonings by believing in Christ; so that he might destroy the things that are truly ignoble and contemptible; because those who judge are rather the ones to be judged and condemned. For error invented their assertion, and it was not from the beginning; but our teaching is from the beginning. Theirs is destroyed, then, since it is asserted with bare words and no witness; but ours is proved not by words alone but with power as its witness.

“So that no flesh may glory in his sight.” That is, so that the wisdom of the flesh may blush at its error, with God as judge; for it is the mind of the flesh to distrust God's power to make a virgin give birth and the rest, because the reasoning of the world, which is akin to the flesh, does not accept this.

“For from him you are in Christ Jesus.” From him, that is, from God who is almighty, we are in the faith of Christ; for it is God's purpose that we should learn his truth and mercy through Christ. The truth is the mystery of the Trinity; the mercy, that when we were captives he redeemed us.

“Who became for us wisdom from God, and righteousness, and sanctification, and redemption.” To strengthen believers, he says that Christ did by the will of God what he did; so that we may know that we have truly learned wisdom, and have been sanctified and justified and redeemed by God through Christ; for no one redeems except what had been his own. Whether, then, that we have been redeemed, or sanctified, that is, cleansed from the work of the flesh and the uncleanness of idols, or justified (for it is just to worship the Creator, spurning all else), or made wise in that we have learned that worldly men are unskilled: all this is God's benefit through Christ. Our redemption, however, is this: Christ offered himself to the devil, who desired him, so that he might remove the claim of sin against himself, and so rescue the devil's captives. “So that, as it is written: Let him who glories glory in the Lord.” This is written in the prophet Jeremiah (Jer 9:24). What the prophet says is fitting: that we should glory in God; for one who glories in the Lord cannot be confounded, since his works and magnificence appear in things done. Therefore, he says, let those be confounded in their idols, which do not send rain and did not make heaven and earth; and in the same way those who glory in men, whom they know to be of no power; for which reason Scripture also says: “Vain is hope in man” (Jer 17:5).

“And I, when I came to you, brothers, did not come with eminence of speech or of wisdom, proclaiming to you the mystery of God. For I did not judge myself to know anything among you except Christ Jesus, and him crucified.” Since above he has shown step by step the form of our teaching, he now proves that he handed it on to them in no other way than as he has shown; for he spoke to them the mystery about Christ both in lowliness of speech and in the foolishness of preaching, as it seems to the world. He calls it a mystery because what became incarnate, God the Word, was hidden with God from the ages. And he shows that those in whom they gloried were heretics, because they both commended perverse teaching through eloquence and, following the prudence of the world, emptied the cross of Christ, ashamed to be called fools by the world; so that they neither preached that Christ was born of the Virgin nor taught that he was truly crucified; because it seems foolish to confess that the Son of God was born a man and crucified. The apostle John also marks these out, saying: “Whoever denies that Christ has come in the flesh is antichrist; and whoever denies the Son does not have the Father either” (1 John 2:23–24); for they said that the Father himself was called the Son for himself; from whom Marcion drew his error. The things he rebukes seem veiled, because he does not make them plain, but wants them to be understood from the fact that the prudence of the world, which is hostile to religion, is found among them. What the things are that he reproves he wants to be learned from his judgment; so that he shows he blames in the Corinthians whatever things of ours the world mocks as foolish. For he mentions the body itself, so that from it the arrangement of its members may be recognized. To the Corinthians, however, they were plain, because they knew the matters on which they were being rebuked.

“And I was with you in weakness and fear and much trembling.” For in preaching Christ in what human wisdom calls foolishness, he provoked hatred and persecutions against himself, as one announcing a vain thing, and one hostile to Jews and gentiles alike.

“And my speech and my preaching were not in the persuasion of human wisdom.” He shows that he did not please human wisdom in order to win men's favour, nor devote himself to the art of words, but that he showed faith to the author of the teaching, who wished his teaching to be acceptable not by the adornment of human tradition, by the din of words, but by the realities themselves; for realities come before words. “But in demonstration of the Spirit and of the power of God.” For as by words, which are weak compared with power, foolish things, when dressed up, seem wise, God wished his preaching to be commended not by the testimony of words but of power; so that, the foolishness of the word having been pointed out, it might show itself by deeds to be wisdom grounded in spiritual reason.

“So that your faith may not be in the wisdom of men but in the power of God. Yet we speak wisdom among the perfect”; that is, among those who, by the testimony of power, confess the cross of Christ to be wisdom. For they are wise and perfect who hold faith not more in words than in realities. “But a wisdom not of this age.” He rightly says a wisdom not of this age but of the age to come, in which the truth of God will appear to those who deny it; for this age does not grasp this reasoning because of the weakness of earthly thought. “Nor of the rulers of this age, who are being destroyed.” It is plain that this wisdom is not the rulers' of this world, because they are destroyed by it. For Christianity has cut out the errors which they planted, that is, idolatry, avarice, and the other vices, as the apostle John says (1 John 3:8): “For this the Son of God came, to destroy the works of the devil.”

“But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, which is hidden.” He testifies that he was sent to make known a hidden meaning, which neither principalities nor powers knew, nor had the world heard; and that therefore it is thought foolish, because it is unknown; but that it is rational and saving, with power as its witness, to which every effort of human reasoning yields. The wisdom of God, then, is hidden, since it lies not in words but in power; not possible by human reason, but credible by the working of the Spirit. “Which God predestined before the ages for our glory.” So true is this wisdom, and it is declared to have been always with God, that it is said to have been predestined before the ages for the glory of us who believe. For God, foreknowing the errors that would be in the world he was going to make, decreed this to the confusion of those who would make foolishness into wisdom for themselves, but to the glory of us who were to believe and do believe.

“Which none of the rulers of this age knew; for if they had known, they would never have crucified the Lord of majesty.” The rulers of this age are to be understood not only as men of the Jews and Romans, but also as those principalities and powers he spoke of above, to whom this saying truly applies, against whom we have our wrestling, the spiritual wickedness in the heavenly places (Eph 6:12); because Christ was crucified by their counsel and will. Indeed, after the temptations, it says, the devil departed until a time (Luke 4:13). And the Lord himself says: “The ruler of this world comes, and finds nothing in me” (John 14:30). The rulers of this age, then, crucified the Lord of majesty through ignorance; for how can the rulers of the Jews, who were subject to the Roman kingdom, be understood as rulers of this age? And neither did the rulers of the Romans crucify Christ, since Pilate said: “I find no cause of death in him” (John 19:4). Hence he also washed his hands, saying to the Jews: “I am innocent of the blood of this righteous man; see to it yourselves” (Matt 27:24). Those rulers, then, crucified Christ the Lord, over whom he triumphed freely in himself (Col 2:15); although the evangelist Mark says of the demons: “For they knew that he was the Christ” (Mark 1:34). They knew indeed that he was the one promised in the law, but did not know his mystery, by which he is the Son of God. The apostle Peter also said this to the Jewish people: “I know, brothers, that you did this evil through ignorance, as did your rulers” (Acts 3:17), not, however, rulers of the age. If, then, servants killed the Lord through ignorance, sin ought not to be ascribed to them. But it is not permitted to be ignorant of this. And though they did not know that he was Lord, they were not unaware that they were doing an impious thing. Yet the Lord of majesty is said to have been crucified, although he cannot die; but because the Word became flesh, that is, the Son of God, incarnate, became man, death was ascribed to him; for the Jews did not persecute the flesh as such, but him who worked through the flesh; and so, though the Lord of majesty knows no death, yet as far as the will of the Jews and of the rulers of this age is concerned, they killed the Lord in the flesh.

“But as it is written: What eye has not seen, nor ear heard, nor has it entered into the heart of man, what God has prepared for those who love him.” This is written in the Apocalypse of Elijah, among the apocrypha. By this example he says that an unexpected thing was done, one that not only did not fall within human understanding but was also hidden from the heavenly powers: namely that the Son of God became incarnate; so as to confirm what he had said above, that if the rulers of this age did not understand that God was made man, how much less men! But if words caused offence or a stumbling block, still faith ought not to have been refused to mighty works and signs. For power ought to have been preferred to human weakness and ignorance, and what seemed impossible to human reason believed; and therefore God prepared this gift for those who love God, that is, for those who believe.

“But God has revealed it to us through his Spirit.” Since the rulers of the age did not know this, God revealed it through his Spirit to believers; for a thing of God cannot be learned without the Spirit of God. For he says he was sent to declare this sacrament not only to men but also to the principalities and powers in the heavenly places, who crucified the Lord; so that, as he preached it on earth, those who are in the carnal heavens, who live under the elements of the firmament, might learn it. This, then, is a singular apostle, who obtained this grace, since the mystery of the Trinity could be explained by no one as it was by him; whence he was also called a vessel of election by divine judgment (Acts 9:15). “For the Spirit searches all things, even the depths of God.” For since this Spirit is from God, he knows all things. He says “the depths of God” because the Spirit knows all his power and foreknowledge, which is wholly impossible for a creature.

“For who among men knows the things of a man except the spirit of the man which is in him?” It is plain that our thoughts are known by no one except our own mind, which he called spirit. Indeed in the Gospel, among other things, it says: “And her spirit returned to her” (Luke 8:55). “So also no one knows the things of God except the Spirit of God.” This Spirit of God, who knows by nature, not by being taught, taught us; and he taught us about the mystery of Christ, because he is not only the Spirit of God but also of Christ.

“But we have not received the spirit of this world, but the Spirit who is from God.” From this we know that we have received the Spirit who is from God, because the spirit of the world cannot know the things he has made known to us. The spirit of the world, however, is the one by whom the possessed, who are without God, are seized; for he is the strongest among the worldly spirits; whence he is accustomed to divine worldly matters by conjecture, and they call him Python. He is the one who is deceived and deceives by plausibilities; he is the one who spoke through the Sibyl, following our meaning, wishing to have a place among the heavenly ones. “So that we may know the things that have been given us by God.” For since the Spirit of God has been given to us, we know the things that have been given us by God. For we could not know these things if we had the spirit of the world, because the spirit of the world cannot know them. For no one knows the mind of God except the one who is from God, the Spirit of God; for lower beings cannot know the counsel of higher ones, nor can a creature discern the will of its maker.

“Which things we also speak.” So that it may be plain from this that we know the things given us by God, because we also speak them, so that others too may learn through spiritual teaching. For things were made known by God to the preachers, that is, to the apostles, to hand on to the peoples, and so that the rulers of this age might learn what evil they had committed. “Not in the teaching of words of human wisdom, but in the teaching of the Spirit”; for the words of human wisdom do not see this meaning, nor is it grasped by literary studies; but it is conceived through faith by spiritual reasoning, as the prophet Isaiah says: “Unless you believe, you will not understand” (Isa 7:9). For it is learned by natural law rather than by the course of the stars and the calculations of the signs which are marked in the firmament. Indeed, those who believe see that what they believe agrees, not with human words, but with their own nature; for the work recognizes its maker; and therefore the gospel speaks spiritual things to our souls, rousing them to knowledge of their Creator. “Comparing spiritual things with spiritual.” That is, to hand on spiritual efficacy, which is contained in the mystery of faith, to those who reject worldly prudence, for the enlightening of the minds of well-disposed people; for those who believe the things that the wisdom of the world judges foolish are spiritual. “But the natural man does not perceive the things that are of the Spirit of God; for it is foolishness to him.” Like the beasts he presses his mind down to the earth, and so grasps only what he sees, and does not think anything can happen except in the way he knows. So whatever he hears otherwise than as he knows it, he judges foolish; for he thinks that nothing can happen without intercourse. Hence he laughs on hearing that God, whom he knows to be simple and incorporeal, begot a Son, and that a Virgin gave birth, and that dissolved bodies are called back to life again; although these things rather serve the praise of God, so that he may be believed to have done something whose working cannot be traced out; for it is God who made it. For human feebleness thinks foolish what its knowledge does not encompass; whereas it ought rather to count this foolish, and to count that wise which, because it is said to be God's doing, cannot be comprehended. “And he cannot know, because it is spiritually judged.” Following human tradition, while they deny faith in the one God, what they, puffed up by reason, think cannot be done has been done spiritually; and so, marked down as reprobate, they have been condemned spiritually.

“The spiritual man judges all things, and he himself is judged by no one.” Since the true reasoning belongs to the spiritual, that is, to believers (for each is named by what he believes), they therefore judge all things. For unbelief will be judged by their example, but they themselves will be judged by no one. For who would condemn one who says what is true? Since it is agreed that all the enemies of the faith hold false things for true, their accusation has already been brought to nothing, condemned by the judgment of truth; for “whoever does not believe”, says the Lord, “has already been judged” (John 3:18).

“For who has known the mind of the Lord? Who has instructed him?” (Isa 40:13). The mind of God is that he commanded these things to be done spiritually, by which the wisdom of the world would be proved foolish, denying that what has been done can be done. There is no one who has known this mind and is displeased with it, so as to correct God's counsel; for whoever has known it praises the power of God; while whoever denies that he can do all things does not believe that he made the world either. For what great thing is it to believe that he begot from himself, when there is no doubt that he made all things out of nothing? Since the Saviour says: “But with God all things are possible” (Matt 19:26). “But we have the mind of the Lord.” He says this because, as believers, we share in the same divine judgment.

“And I, brothers, could not speak to you as to spiritual people but as to carnal.” Now he speaks to those who were carnal because they were still serving the pleasures of the age. Although they had already been baptized and received the Holy Spirit, yet because after baptism they had at once returned to the old man whom they had renounced, they are called carnal. For the Holy Spirit remains in the one into whom he has poured himself if that person remains in the purpose of regeneration; if not, he departs, yet in such a way that, if the person reforms himself, he returns to him at once. For he is always ready for the good, loving repentance. “As to little ones in Christ I gave you milk to drink, not solid food.” Although they were in Christ, it was not fitting for spiritual things to be handed on to them; for having received faith, which is like a spiritual seed, they produced no fruit worthy of God, so as to deserve to learn the words of perfection; but like little ones they were devoted to the notions of immaturity. But the Apostle, a divine man and a spiritual physician, handed on to each according to his strength, so that no one, through immaturity and inexperience, might suffer offence regarding spiritual things.

“For you were not yet able.” He shows plainly that they ought not to have heard what is to be said to the established. “But neither are you able now; for you are still carnal.” Here he strongly rebukes the rashness of those who complained that they had not long since heard spiritual things, though they were still unworthy to hear them. For the false apostles handed on to all indiscriminately in one and the same way, distinguishing no one's person, so as to become acceptable, commended by hypocrisy; whereas it is agreed that Christ, our Lord and author, spoke one way to the crowds and another to the disciples, and that there was a difference even among the apostles themselves; for to three disciples he showed his glory on the mountain, telling them to keep silent about the vision until he rose from the dead (Matt 17:9).

“For when there are rivalries and strife among you, are you not carnal, and walking according to man?” He shows the reason for their unworthiness: one who hopes for help from man is carnal; but one who, spurning humanity, hopes in God is spiritual; for God is spirit.

“For when someone says, 'I am of Paul', and another, 'I of Apollos', are you not men?” For as those who glory in God and hope for all grace from him are called gods, adopted by God, so those who glory in man are called both men and carnal, shut in by the sentence of God, who says: “I said, You are gods; but you will die like men” (Ps 81:6). He begins, then, with his own person, so that it might not be thought that he was destroying their persons out of envy, showing that it is a great error and pertains to an insult to God when, God having been preached, glory is given to men. For how is this less than paganism, when something is still hoped for from men?

“What then is Apollos? And what is Paul? Ministers of him in whom you have believed.” Since they are ministers, hope is not to be in them but in God, whose ministers they are. For thanks must be given to him whose gift it is; these are servants, who must dispense it even unwillingly. Was not Moses compelled to go to Pharaoh, and Jonah sent against his will to preach to the Ninevites, and Ananias, protesting, sent to lay his hand on Saul? “And to each as the Lord has given”: that is, as he wished and knows, he has assigned the duties of ministry to each.

“I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.” To plant is to preach the gospel and draw people to faith; to water is to baptize with the solemn words; but to forgive sins and give the Spirit belongs to God alone. If, then, God gives the effect of salvation, there is no glory for any name in this matter. For we know that the Holy Spirit was given by God even without the laying on of hands (Acts 10:44), and that one who was not baptized obtained the forgiveness of sins. Was not he baptized invisibly, when he obtained the gift of baptism?

“So neither he who plants is anything, nor he who waters, but God who gives the growth.” For things planted often die, and things watered fail to reach fruitfulness, unless God gives vigorous life. As far as the honour of God is concerned, then, man is nothing; but as far as ministry is concerned, he is necessary; so that he may be honoured as a servant, not so that anything may be hoped from him to God's injury.

“For he who plants and he who waters are one.” They are one because both are hired workers, although their duties differ. “But each will receive his own wages according to his own labour.” For although they are one, yet because the one who preaches the gospel is greater than the one who baptizes, he has distinguished their wages; and not only for this, but it also concerns the purity of the teaching: so that one who hands on the teaching unviolated is worthy of a greater reward.

“For we are sharers in God's work; you are God's cultivation, God's building.” This applies to the person of the apostles, who are agreed to be God's helpers, because they are vicars of Christ.

“According to the grace of God which was given to me, as a wise architect I laid the foundation.” He says that grace was given him to be worthy to preach the gospel, so as to show that this too is God's, not man's. According to this grace, then, he says he laid the foundation as a wise architect. A wise architect is one who lays the foundation according to the author's instruction, that is, who preaches the gospel according to the Saviour's tradition. “But another builds on it.” The superstructures are what is handed on, after the apostles' preaching, by those who come afterwards, either bad or good teachers. “But let each one see how he builds on it”: that is, that the superstructures fit the foundation, lest, if they are crooked and flimsy, they collapse while the foundation remains unharmed; for if one teaches badly, the name of Christ, which is the foundation, remains, but the bad teaching will perish, as the Lord says: “Every planting that my heavenly Father has not planted will be uprooted” (Matt 15:13).

“For no one can lay any other foundation than the one that has been laid, which is Christ Jesus.” No one can lay another foundation because, although some are heretics, still they teach only under the name of Christ. For they cannot commend the fabrications of error otherwise than by preaching with the Saviour's name put forward, so that the dignity of the name may make contrary and absurd things acceptable.

“Now if anyone builds on this foundation gold, silver, precious stones.” Precious stones are those which fire does not destroy. He set down three kinds of things that are splendid in the world, by which he signified good teaching. “Wood, hay, stubble”: he set down three other kinds, but flimsy ones. By these corrupt and empty teaching is recognized to be signified.

“The one who does this work will be made manifest; for the day will declare it, because it will be revealed in fire.” That is, bad teaching will appear to all in the fire; for now it deceives some. “And the fire will test what sort each one's work is.” For since the examination will take place through fire, if it finds nothing in someone to burn, it shows that he was a good teacher; for bad and adulterated teaching is signified by wood, hay and stubble precisely to show that it is food for fire.

“If anyone's work which he has built on remains, he will receive a reward.” For when nothing of the filth of bad teaching is found in him, as in good gold, he will be like the three brothers in the furnace of fire (Dan 3:23), and will receive the reward of eternal life with glory; for as gold and silver and the stones which fire does not consume, so the good teacher too will remain incorruptible.

“If anyone's work burns, he will suffer loss.” The work said to burn is bad teaching, which will perish. For all evil things will perish, like the way of the ungodly, because they are not substances but perverse assertions. To suffer loss is to undergo punishment. For who, when placed under punishment, does not suffer loss? “But he himself will be saved, yet so as through fire.” He said he would be saved because the substance of which he consists will not perish, as the bad teaching will, since that is an accident. But he said “yet so as through fire” so that this salvation may not be without punishment; for he did not say, “he will be saved by fire”, meaning that, not burned by the fire because of his merit, he is saved after being tested by fire; but when he says “yet so as through fire”, he shows that he will indeed be saved, but will suffer the punishments of fire; so that, purged through fire, he may be saved, and not, like the faithless, be tormented forever in eternal fire; so that in some respect it may be worthwhile to have believed in Christ. For anyone who sees that he has defended the false for the true must always blush; and likewise anyone who, casting off the false, has followed the true, and spurning impiety has submitted to piety, will always have confidence in God. For whatever is outside the catholic faith is contrary to it.

“Do you not know that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you?” He says we are the temple of God so that we may know that God dwells in us; for he must dwell in his own temple. And since he says the Spirit of God dwells in us, he signifies that the Holy Spirit is to be understood as God.

“If anyone violates the temple of God, God will destroy him; for the temple of God is holy, which you are.” He set this down beforehand to prick those who, living shamefully, had corrupted their bodies by violating them, above all the man who had his father's wife; so that he might be guilty before his case burst into the open. Indeed in a similar, or rather the same, way, when he judges his case, he speaks, saying: “Or do you not know that your bodies are a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have from God?” (1 Cor 6:19). Above he spoke of the temple of God; in this place of the temple of the Holy Spirit. Who here would doubt that he signified the Holy Spirit to be God?

“Let no one deceive himself”: that is, let no one think he benefits himself by his own or human counsel. He returns to the earlier sense: “If anyone among you seems to be wise in this age, let him become foolish, so that he may be wise.” He says this because, if anyone understands the promised salvation and the mystery of the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ, let him become foolish, that is, let him flee the wisdom of the world, so that he may be judged foolish by it; and then he will be wise; for one who is foolish to the age is wise to God, when he believes that God did what the reasoning of the world does not grasp, as I mentioned above. But the false apostles, wishing to seem wise in the world, preached neither that God has a Son, nor that the incarnation is real, nor that the flesh can rise.

“For the wisdom of this world is foolishness with God.” The wisdom of this world is foolishness with God in this way: when God does what the world denies can be done, he proves its wisdom foolishness; and since they speak of many gods, while faith proves one, with power as witness, they will be confounded in their own prudence.

“For it is written: He rebukes the wise in their cunning. And again: The Lord knows the thoughts of the wise, that they are vain.” This is found in the ninety-third Psalm. The sense is the same; for, knowing their thoughts to be vain, in order to prove them foolish he rebuked their wisdom, showing that what they called false is true, and what they thought true is false.

“So let no one glory in a man.” Since human thoughts and counsels are short-sighted and weak, he teaches that one must not glory in man but in God, whose counsel cannot be revised; for whatever men think wise without God is foolish.

“For all things are yours, whether Paul or Apollos or Cephas, or the world or life or death, or things present or things to come: all are yours, and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's.” In another place he says in the same sense: “But ourselves your servants for Jesus' sake” (2 Cor 4:5). He put 'servants' for 'ministers', so that they would not each defend particular men for themselves, since they might use them all, as the Lord also says: “I am in your midst, not to be served but to serve” (Luke 22:27). For the world is certainly ours, but in such a way that we think of it according to God's will and place its appointed courses in God's will. And the present life has been granted us, but so that we may pass it modestly and to God's glory. “Or death”: so that we may gladly accept dying for Christ in hope of the promise to come. “Or things present”: so that we may use present things in such a way as not to give offence. “Or things to come”: so that, believing in things to come, we may commend ourselves rather to them, because they are better.

“And you are Christ's”: so that, just as these things are granted and subject to our judgment, so we too may be subject to Christ, since through him we began to be, both in our first origin and in regeneration. “And Christ is God's.” Christ is the proper Son of God his Father, doing his will, so that we too may do his. If, then, we are Christ's servants, why should we hope for anything from men to his injury?

“Let a man so regard us, as ministers of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God.” He indicated this because some of the Corinthians thought less of him; but so that a man might think of him what God also thought, who had chosen him, he says “ministers of Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God”. For since he did not strive to be understood by a din of words or by human wisdom, he had to dispense the sacrament of Christ, in which not words but power shone forth, so that not man but God might be seen to be glorious; for, a colleague of fishermen, he preached Christ no differently than they. When, therefore, he proves himself a minister of Christ and of the sacraments of God, he marks out the false apostles, and denies that what they hand on is Christ's, because they disagreed with the apostolic tradition.

“Here now it is required among stewards that one be found faithful.” What he says applies not only to the person of the false apostles, but also to the others who, having received a stewardship, out of shame or fear, or certainly for the sake of their own reputation, were afraid to rebuke firmly either bad opinions or bad morals. For he himself was so firm that he did not spare even his own life, provided that he performed everything faithfully.

“But to me it is a very small thing to be judged by you, or by a human day.” He says it is miserable to be judged by those whom he rebukes for such great vices, since he knew he was not to be judged even by the just. “Or by a human day”: that is, because he was not to be judged even by the laws entrusted to the world. For, having gone beyond human righteousness, he strove for heavenly righteousness, as the Lord says: “Unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will not enter the kingdom of God” (Matt 5:20). When he says “a human day”, then, he also signifies the divine one, on which Christ will judge; for as the jurists or pontiffs, whom they call priests, appointed fixed days on which judgment is given, so the day of the Lord has been fixed, on which he will judge the world.

“But neither do I judge myself; for I am conscious of nothing against myself.” It is plain that, having a pure conscience, he was not anxious about himself. “But I am not justified by this.” Now he humbles himself and speaks as a man who could fall into a fault unawares. “But the one who judges me is the Lord.” He rightly says so; for although he humbled himself, he yet gave very much to the Lord Christ, because he can, in judging hidden things, make plain what escapes a man, not to make him guilty but to make him wise. For though he is holy, he is still a man, from whom it cannot be that nothing is hidden. For sometimes we think something useful which is useless; for we do not have every limb or side of human conduct described for us, though we are plainly forbidden the grave things. For certain things tend to deceive us, arising from various causes, so that we think useful what is not useful; but this is a light matter, because the will is free.

“So do not judge before the time, until the Lord comes.” He warns them not to judge, since they are to be judged, and so have a double sin, as the Lord says: “Do not judge, so that you may not be judged” (Matt 7:1); but to await the day of God's judgment, as if they were faithful and good. For it is an injury to the judge if judgment or sentence proceeds from a servant before his hearing. “Who will also bring to light the hidden things of darkness, and make manifest the counsels of hearts; and then each will have praise from God.” He says this because on the day of judgment nothing will be hidden of what has been done or thought; both simplicity and hypocrisy will appear there; so that one who was held despised may perhaps appear worthy, and one who was thought to be something may be found reprobate. For all things are naked on the day of judgment, and then there will be praise for the one who acts or thinks well. For here, whether the one who is praised is worthy cannot be proved, as he says in another place: “For not the one who commends himself is approved, but the one whom God commends” (2 Cor 10:18), from whom indeed nothing is hidden.

“These things, brothers, I have transferred to myself and Apollos for your sake, so that you may learn in us not to be puffed up, beyond what is written, one for one against another.” He transferred these things to himself and Apollos when, under his own person and that of Apollos, he emptied the boasts and perverse traditions of the false apostles, indicating them in summary, not one by one, lest a greater discord should arise among the people. For no one who hears his own name censured, or that of the man he favours, is content to keep silent; but if the name is unspoken, a hearer, even if he understands it is said of him, conceals it. Under this proposition, then, he emptied their persons when he says: “I planted, Apollos watered”, and so on (1 Cor 3:6), so that they might learn by these that nothing is to be given to men.

“For who distinguishes you?” That is, there are some who, having received more in baptism or in teaching, say that the others have obtained less. He says this to those who thought that those baptized by others were something more, and by whose eloquence they were led astray, so that by a certain trick they thought perverse things right. For there was such discord among the people that there were many factions of different parties; and so the Apostle fitted all his words to all the parties without disclosing names, so that when the letter was read each party might take what was said to it, recognizing on hearing it that its own case was being addressed. “For what do you have that you did not receive?” He says that the man had obtained nothing good from others beyond what he had received from Paul, and so complained in vain; for what they had, they had received from the Apostle. He seems to speak to one person because he speaks to a part of the people. “But if you received it, why do you glory as if you had not received it?” Those who insulted the Apostle did this through ignorance: hearing the same things they had already learned from the Apostle, they emptied him of credit and gloried in the teaching of these men; for, commended by eloquence, they turned the glory of the preaching to themselves. But the Apostle was willing to seem contemptible, provided he made the glory of God acceptable.

“Already you are filled, already you have become rich; without us you reign.” It is irony, as they say; for they are the words of one who is angry, not of one who affirms. He says they reign, though he rebukes such great vices in them; for so they thought, glorying in what was handed on by the false apostles. “And would that you did reign, so that we too might reign with you.” Like a loving father, he wishes well even to ungrateful sons. For how could it be that they would reign without the apostles? For whatever has not been handed on by the apostles is full of wickedness. The order of thought should have been to say, “so that you might reign with us”; but because he had said first, “and would that you did reign”, he could not say otherwise than “so that we too might reign with you”. To reign, however, is to be secure in the hope and promises of Christ, and to rejoice in adversities that happen for the name of Christ; for they bring gain, not loss. Hence he says in another place: “When I am weak, then I am strong” (2 Cor 12:10).

“For I think that God has displayed us apostles as last, as men destined to death.” He applies this to his own person because he was always in hardship, suffering persecutions and afflictions beyond the others, as Enoch and Elijah, who will be apostles in the last time, are to suffer. For they are to be sent before Christ to prepare the people of God and to fortify all the churches to resist the antichrist; and the reading of the Apocalypse testifies that they will suffer persecutions and be killed. The Apostle compared their time with his own, saying: “as men destined to death” (Rev 11:8 and following); for they will come in order to be killed. “Because we have been made a spectacle to this world, both to angels and to men.” For Enoch and Elijah will be a spectacle, to the point that their bodies will be thrown out in the street in the sight of the whole unbelieving people; so too the apostles have been made a spectacle, because they were publicly mocked, exposed to the injury and death which they suffered. He called angels and men 'the world' because there are also evil angels, as David says in the seventy-seventh Psalm: “He afflicted them through evil angels”, and evil and unbelieving men; to these the injuries of the apostles are a delight. Unbelief is called 'the world' because it follows visible things.

“We are fools for Christ's sake.” It is true that those who love Christ are fools to the world. “But you are wise in Christ.” One who is judged wise in Christ by the faithless does not rightly assert Christ. Indeed Marcion, because he denies that God has a Son and that God could become incarnate, is wise to the world; and Photinus, because he does not confess that Christ, in what he was born, is God, seems wise to worldly people. “We are weak.” Weak because, preaching Christ without flattery and with what seems foolishness to worldly people, they were subjected to injuries. “But you are strong.” Strong because they professed Christ in such a way as not to offend men, so as to be safe. “You are noble.” For one who does not confess that Christ was promised to Abraham and preached from the beginning is noble against Christ, because he ascribes the antiquity of the promise of Christ to others. “But we are without honour.” One is without honour to the world who professes Christ from the beginning, which the world denies. All the things said above, then, which he seems to deny, he confirms, and what he seems to confirm, he denies. For these are the words of one who is angry, who confesses by denying and denies by confessing.

“Up to this hour we both hunger and thirst, and are naked, and are beaten, and are unsettled, and we labour working with our own hands.” For, preaching Christ freely and according to the true faith without any flattery, and rebuking the deeds of a depraved life, they had no favour with men, and were beaten, that is, treated with injuries, and were unsettled, because they were driven away, lest by staying long in one place they should teach more people. They worked with their hands because not only did they have no favour with men, but it was also unworthy to accept anything from those who were devoted to error, as he says in the hundred and fortieth Psalm: “But let not the oil of the sinner anoint my head” (Ps 140:5). For the one who accepts from someone who gives in order not to be rebuked both loses the freedom to rebuke and sins. “We are cursed, and we bless”: for they urged those who treated them badly toward the good. “We suffer persecution and endure it”: because they did not resist their persecutors. “We are blasphemed, and we entreat”: for they asked those who blasphemed to allow them to give an account. “We have become like the refuse of this world, the offscouring of all, until now.” By resisting no one and not repaying evil for evil, but always submitting, so as to call people back to the good by patience, he became contemptible and despised. “Until now”: that is, even now among the Corinthians, for whom he suffered the evils he mentions above. And since he saw that his humility achieved nothing in them, he complains, moved by grief, that such great submission and such injuries could have no fruit, and, what is worse, had even turned to the worse.

“Not to confound you do I write these things”: that is, I do not write these things to make you blush, but so that you may correct yourselves. “But I admonish you as my dearest sons.” He still makes himself a suppliant, lest, being rebuked and provoked to anger, they should spurn his admonitions. He acts like a saving physician who, cutting away the dead flesh, soothes the pain he has caused with hope and gentle words, so that the patient lets himself be treated. “For though you have ten thousand tutors in Christ, yet not many fathers. For in Christ Jesus I begot you through the gospel.” By these words he shows that no one could love them with the affection with which he loved them. For who would prefer others' sons to his own in love? And therefore they ought not to spurn the admonitions of one who has also suffered such evils for them.

“I beseech you, then, be imitators of me.” See the kindness of the holy Apostle, who beseeches his sons to imitate their father; that is, he begs the sick of his own accord to accept the medicine. Yet he wants them to be his imitators in this: that, just as he suffered many afflictions from unbelievers for their salvation and did not give way, provided that day and night he preached to them the gift of the grace of God, so they too, remaining in his faith and teaching, should not accept the perverse inventions of the false apostles, but resist them, despising reproaches or slanders, so as to keep their affection for their spiritual father unviolated.

“For this reason I have sent to you Timothy, who is my dearest and faithful son in the Lord.” He exhorts them in this same Timothy, whom he therefore attests to be his dearest and faithful son in the Lord, so that they might learn by him in what they were sinning; for when he bears witness to him, he rebukes them. “Who will remind you of my ways, which are in Christ Jesus, as I teach everywhere in every church.” Through this man, whom he confirms as a faithful son in the Lord, he wants them to return to the rule of the truth he had handed on; so that, reminded by his words and the example of his works, they might come to their senses, recognizing that they had not been wrongly taught by the Apostle, when they learned that all the churches hold the same things.

“Some are puffed up, as though I were not coming to you.” Some of the Corinthians were indignant that he did not go to them, not out of longing but out of pride, as though he held them unworthy; whereas the Apostle's aim was rather to make the unworthy worthy. He had, then, the wish to go, but what he was doing was more important.

“But I will come to you soon, if the Lord permits.” After the admonition he promises to go to them, but if the Lord should permit; so that, since God knows more than man, he would permit it if he knew it was worthwhile; and if he did not go, he would show that the Lord had not allowed it, certainly because of their unworthiness. “And I will find out not the speech of those who are puffed up, but their power.” He confounds them, because, though they lived crookedly, they were indignant, as though they deserved to be visited by the Apostle.

“For the kingdom of God is not in speech but in power.” So that, just as the kingdom of God is commended not by splendour of words but by the power of signs, so these too should show themselves worthy to be visited by the Apostle not by bare words but by the power of spiritual works.

“What do you want? Shall I come to you with a rod, or in love and a spirit of gentleness?” He adds words of terror, so that those who were puffed up, being shamed, might be humbled; so that if they truly desired the Apostle's presence, they might prepare themselves to receive him, that is, wash themselves from every stain of sin; so that, coming to them, he might have joy as with his dearest sons.

“It is actually reported that there is sexual immorality among you, and such sexual immorality as is not even among the gentiles.” To show how grave this sin is, he said it is not committed even by those who do not know God; so as to show accordingly with what penalty this man should be punished, who, though placed under eternal and divine justice, had committed the crime of so great a wickedness. “That someone has his father's wife.” He disclosed the kind of crime mentioned, so as not only to make him plainly guilty of death, but also to show that those who sided with him were not free of the crime; for sinning in a matter where sin is difficult makes one more guilty.

“And you are puffed up, and have not rather mourned.” He humbles their pride so far as to make them no longer complainers but rather suppliants. For they too were sharers in it, while they allowed one guilty of so enormous a crime to assemble with them uncorrected; whereas all of one mind should have cast him out if he refused to amend himself. But if anyone does not have the power to cast out someone he knows to be guilty, or cannot prove it, he is free of blame; and it is not for a judge to condemn without an accuser; for the Lord too did not cast out Judas, though he was a thief, because he was not accused. “So that the one who did this deed might be removed from your midst.” Once this deed was known, he should have been driven from the assembly of the brotherhood; for all knew his crime and did not rebuke it; for he openly kept his stepmother in place of a wife. In this matter there was no need of witnesses, nor could the crime be covered by any evasion.

“I indeed, absent in body but present in spirit”: that is, absent in face but present by the authority of the Spirit, who is absent nowhere. “I have already judged, as if present, the one who has done this, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, when you are gathered, and my spirit, with the power of our Lord Jesus, to hand this man over to Satan for the destruction of the flesh.” Since all pleasure of the flesh is from the devil, therefore when someone is given over to this pleasure, he is handed over to Satan; for the flesh has this by nature, that it perishes; so the soul, when it joins itself to its desire, weakening its spiritual vigour, suffers destruction along with it. And so, if this man, rebuked for the sexual immorality he committed, were ashamed at being cast out, he would not perish, repentance following. Not only by the agreement and presence of all, but by the power of the Lord Jesus, that is, by the sentence of him whose embassy the Apostle discharged, he decreed that the man should be cast out of the church. When he is cast out, he is handed over to Satan for the destruction of the flesh; for both soul and body perish when things contrary to the law are done; but in this case the destruction of the flesh is ascribed to the man in another way. For although all sins render a man carnal, this is especially the desire of the flesh, by which he hands himself over with the body to Gehenna; for when the soul is conquered and stained with filth, it becomes flesh by the lust of the flesh; just as the body too, rightly governed, is called spiritual. Yet it is the mind which, either conquered by enticements, makes the whole man fleshly, or, remaining in the vigour of its nature, enables the flesh to be called spiritual. “So that the spirit may be saved on the day of the Lord Jesus Christ.” He hands over the defiled man mentioned to Satan so that the spirit may be saved in the people of the church on the day of judgment; for unless he had been cast out, the spirit of the church would not be saved on the day of judgment. For the Spirit would have deserted all because of the defilement, so that, found on the day of the Lord stripped of the Holy Spirit, they would hear from the Lord, the judge: “Depart from me, I do not know you” (Matt 7:23); as he says to the Romans: “If anyone does not have the Spirit of Christ, he is not his” (Rom 8:9); and in another letter: “Do not grieve the Holy Spirit of God” (Eph 4:30). For if he is grieved, he departs, and will not be saved; not, of course, for himself, for he is impassible, but for us, to whom he has been given, so that through him we may be proved to be sons of God. For a thing that is lost is not saved, not for itself, since wherever it is it must exist, but for the one by whom it is lost.

“Is your glorying good?” That is, it is not good; for they were glad, when they ought rather to have been saddened over a brother sinning so bitterly, as Samuel was sad over Saul's sinning. Bad teachers either ignored this crime or rebuked it too negligently (as Eli the priest did his sons who sinned against God, 1 Sam 2:23), so as not to be disliked by men. “Do you not know that a little leaven corrupts the whole lump?” So too the sin of one person, known and not rebuked, defiles many; indeed all who know of it and do not avoid him, or who conceal it when they could rebuke it. For he does not seem to himself to sin when he is rebuked or avoided by no one.

“Clean out the old leaven, so that you may be a new lump.” This is to be taken in two ways, because leaven is also human teaching, as the Saviour says: “Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees” (Matt 16:11), that is, of their teaching. It was said, then, both to guard against bad teaching and for this case, because when the fornicator is cast out, the old leaven is cast out. It is 'old' because it is the sin of the ancient error. The new mixture is Christ's teaching. “As you are unleavened.” Unleavened bread was named from flour not leavened when the children of Israel were brought out of Egypt; so that leaven was held to be oldness and the unleavened newness. For, having cast off the old errors of the Egyptians, they were led into a new law; so too the Corinthians, after the errors of the pagans, were led into the gospel of Christ. He exhorts them, then, to live according to their profession, which they had received from the Apostle under the name of Christ, as people who now practise a new life; and this is to be unleavened. “Christ our Passover has been sacrificed.” He teaches according to the law that the newness consists in the meaning of the Passover, and that Christ was slain so that from it a new preaching might make a new way of life; so that, since we keep the meaning of the Passover, we may not follow the old life. The Passover, therefore, is a sacrifice, not a passing over, as it seems to some; for first the Passover, and then the passing over, because first comes the Saviour's pattern and then the sign of salvation. For the sign does not come before the cross; for when the lamb had been slain in the evening, the children of Israel in Egypt kept the Passover, and marked their doorposts with its blood, so that the angel passing by at night would not touch the places smeared with the lamb's blood (Exod 12).

“So let us celebrate the feast, not with the old leaven.” That is, rejoicing in renewal, let us flee old deeds, casting away from us all uncleanness, which is corruption; for as leaven corrupts the whole lump, so a bad life corrupts the whole man. So that we may keep ourselves not only from shameful living but also from the pursuit of iniquity, he added: “nor with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth.” That is, so that sincerity may make life clean, and truth exclude all fraud.

“I wrote to you in the letter not to associate with fornicators.” He indicates that he had written earlier, where he warns them not to join themselves to people of bad life. And since they seemed perhaps not to have understood what he had written, he now in this letter interprets what he wrote, saying: “Not at all the fornicators of this world”, but I wrote that one must withdraw from such brothers. “Or the greedy, or robbers, or idolaters; otherwise you would have had to go out of this world.” He rebukes the understanding of those who perhaps thought that he had forbidden association with unbelievers who were fornicators, greedy, robbers, or idolaters, not with brothers; and therefore they were not troubled that the man who had his father's wife was among them. “If, then, you associate with these”, he says, “it would be better for you to die”; for it is a gain for evildoers to die sooner rather than to live longer in sins.

“But now I have written to you not to associate with anyone who is called a brother among you if he is a fornicator, or greedy, or an idolater, or a reviler, or a drunkard, or a robber; with such a one not even to eat.” He forbids taking food with a brother, but did not forbid it with an unbeliever, since he says: “If any of the unbelievers invites you to dinner and you wish to go, eat whatever is set before you” (1 Cor 10:27). Therefore he says:

“For what have I to do with judging those who are outside?” It is true that a bishop cannot judge unbelievers; but with a brother in whom these vices are found he teaches that not only are the sacraments not to be eaten, but not even ordinary food; so that he may blush when he is avoided, and correct himself.

“Do you not judge those who are inside?” One judges when he discerns which brother to cling to, which to rebuke, which to avoid. “For God will judge those who are outside.” Above he says: “Do not judge before the time” (1 Cor 4:5); here he does not forbid it. But above he forbade judging unknown things on suspicion, especially about a ruler, because judging hidden things belongs to God alone; in this place, however, he even commands that brother examine brother, as he says in another place: “Test yourselves, whether you are in the faith; prove yourselves” (2 Cor 13:5). But those who are outside will be condemned on the day of judgment; for the Lord said: “Whoever does not believe has already been judged” (John 3:18). For one in whom there is no hope is to be counted as dead. “Remove the evil from among yourselves.” He again warns them to separate themselves from evil, both deeds and men.

“Does any of you, having a matter against another, dare to go to law before the unrighteous and not before the saints?” He means the unrighteous in two ways: both those who do not believe, and those who often interpret with flattery the laws entrusted by God to the world, ascribing their authority to idols, and are therefore unrighteous; and since there is more law in the church, where the Lord of the law is feared, he says it is better to plead a case before God's ministers; for out of the fear of God they more readily bring out the true sentence of the law.

“Or do you not know that the saints will judge this world?” The Apostle says nothing idly; he said “this world” to show that there is another; for the apostle John also says: “Do not love this world” (1 John 2:15). And the Lord in the Gospel says: “For God so loved the world”, and so on (John 3:16). It is this world, then, that is in error, not that higher one, in whose likeness this one was made. Hence man was placed here, made in the image of God, so that, just as in the higher world all things are from one God, so in this one all might have their origin from one man. Hence Moses says in Deuteronomy: “When the Most High divided the nations, as he scattered the sons of Adam, he set the boundaries of the nations according to the number of the angels of God” (Deut 32:8). What could be so plain as that this world is, for a definite reason, the image of the higher? For there is also a lower Jerusalem, and that higher one which the same Apostle calls our mother (Gal 4:26); there is a lower paradise, in which man was placed and received the command both to work it and to keep it (Gen 2:15); there is also that heavenly one into which the Apostle was caught up and heard secret words (2 Cor 12:2–4). The saints, then, will judge this world, because by the example of their faith the faithlessness of the world will be condemned. “And if the world will be judged by you.” This world will be judged by us then, if the work of faithless men is not found in us. “Are you unworthy, then, to judge even the smallest matters?” That is, those who are to judge the world itself are certainly not unworthy to judge the things that are of the world.

“Do you not know that we shall judge angels?” He added something more by saying “we shall judge angels”, that is, the spiritual powers which, he teaches in another place, dwell in the heavenly places; meaning that the angels are to be judged by us in the same way as the world will be judged.

“If, then, you have worldly judgments, appoint those who are contemptible in the church to judge them.” Worldly judgments are those concerning the body or bodily things. And since it ought not to be done in this way, he added: “I say this to your shame.” Since above he named a 'matter' but did not indicate what kind (for there are also divine matters, as the same Apostle says: “a helper of my business”, Rom 16:2), and since perhaps, because he had forbidden worldly judgments to be pleaded before unbelievers, they might think them to be heard or settled in the church, as they had heard, but by anyone at all, he says to shame them: “Appoint those who are contemptible in the church to judge.” For there are also wooden vessels in the church; for he indicated that they were so unmanageable and thoughtless that they might perhaps choose unskilled judges from among the brothers. The Apostle says this from experience; for he knew how lukewarm and short-sighted they had been found in other matters. “Is there thus no wise man among you who can judge between his brother?” Since, then, he says, there are wise brothers, let some of them be chosen to judge, whose judgment the world may admire. For it is a great shame if among those who are said to have known God there is not found one who can examine a matter according to the law of the gospel. He says a brother should be chosen as judge because a ruler of their church had not yet been ordained.

“But brother goes to law with brother, and that before unbelievers.” It is plain that by unbelievers he means either arbitrators who have been requested, as usually happens, or a public judge, to whom it is customary to say: “Today is a day of sacred rites; justice cannot be pronounced.”

“Already it is altogether a fault in you that you have lawsuits among you.” He indicates that it is a sin that brother quarrels with brother, when effort should be made that they be of one mind, like brothers by birth; especially since our faith strives for peace. For although a Christian ought not to go to law, yet if there is something serious that cannot be overlooked, let him bring the case to the church, lest he incur both present loss and perhaps offence.

“Why do you not rather accept injury? Why not rather be defrauded? But you yourselves do injury and defraud, and that to brothers.” Now he reproves those whose injustice gives rise to the quarrel; for they are guilty not only through the fraud committed, but also share in the fault of those who, compelled by their injury or fraud, ask unbelievers to judge; and whereas they ought not to pursue the fraud or injuries done to them, they not only take vengeance but themselves commit fraud and injuries, so as to give their brothers examples deserving punishment. And what would one believe he does to others, who does not spare his own?

“Or do you not know that the unrighteous will not possess the kingdom of God?” By this saying he shows that they did not sin unknowingly, and therefore are to be punished more severely. For if the unmerciful are guilty before God, how much more the unrighteous? “Do not be deceived; for neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor the effeminate, nor those who lie with males, nor thieves, nor the greedy, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor robbers will possess the kingdom of God.” He did not mention these things as though they did not know them, those among whom he stayed a year and six months teaching the gospel of God; but he reminded them, so as to restore in them reverence for the law and the merit for the kingdom of heaven (Acts 18:11).

“And such indeed you were.” So that he might not seem to ascribe this to all, or else to make all free of these crimes, if he did so (for he seemed to have forbidden their crimes, not exposed them), he speaks thus: “And such indeed you were.” And lest he provoke them to anger, he adds: “But you were washed”; so that, recognizing their crimes and made guilty, they might at once breathe again on hearing, “But you were washed.” For some are apt to feel shame and amend when they hear good things of themselves. “But you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God.” All these benefits of purity are known to be obtained in baptism, which is the foundation of the gospel truth. For there, all sins having been put away, the believer is washed and justified in the Lord's name, and through the Spirit of our God is adopted as a son to God. By this he reminds them how great and of what kind is the grace which they obtained through the true tradition; but afterwards, thinking contrary to this rule of faith at the prompting of bad teachers, they stripped themselves of these benefits. Hence he acts so as to call them back to the true and first belief, so that they might recover what they had obtained.

“All things are lawful for me, but not all things are expedient.” To some it seems that the Apostle said “All things are lawful for me”, etc., because of the freedom of choice granted, so that it would be lawful to commit fornication, though not expedient. But how is what is forbidden lawful? Or surely, if all things are lawful, nothing can be called unlawful. 'But it is lawful, though not expedient': this they mutter rather than assert, being either forgetful or careless. For John the Baptist said to Herod: “It is not lawful for you to have your brother's wife” (Mark 6:18). But perhaps John, inspired in the womb, was unacquainted with human eloquence; for if this were so, he ought to have said: 'It is lawful for you, but not expedient.' But the Lord too likewise says to the Canaanite woman: “It is not lawful to take the children's bread and throw it to the dogs” (Matt 15:26). And again the Lord says to the Jews: “Have you not read what David did when he was hungry, how he went into the house of the Lord and took the loaves of the presence, which it was not lawful for him to eat?” etc. (Mark 2:25–26). Everything, then, that is forbidden is not lawful; and everything that is not lawful is forbidden; but sometimes, when some reason intervenes, a thing is lawful but not expedient. “All things are lawful for me, but I will be brought under no one's power.” He says all things are lawful for him, namely those things which were lawful for his fellow apostles too, which the natural law contains, not Moses'; for Moses forbade many things because of the hardness of heart of an unbelieving and stiff-necked people (Matt 19:8). Yet if you look at the occasion, the Apostle had something else in mind in saying these things; for he set them down first, intending afterwards to deal with this case, as he also did about the man who had committed incest; for he sets it forth to indicate what he would deal with later. Indeed, having briefly commended the matter for the time being, he at once returns to the earlier sense; for he said this because it was lawful for him to accept support from them. But since he knew that the false apostles were seeking an occasion for accepting, he refused to accept from them, lest the vigour of the gospel truth should grow torpid for the sake of the belly. For if he accepted from those whom he was rebuking for such great vices, he would bend the authority of teaching granted him by the Lord; for one cannot firmly rebuke someone from whom one accepts, especially when that person is quick to give precisely so as to humble the one set over him. Hence he also says: “But I will be brought under no one's power.”

“Food for the belly and the belly for food, but God will destroy both it and them.” The destruction of the belly is when the function of eating ceases; the destruction of food will be when birth has stopped. The false apostles, however, who went about not for the sake of religion but for gain, did not want to be disliked by sinners. “But the body is not for fornication but for the Lord.” Now he returns to the earlier sense: “and the Lord for the body.” What is the Lord for the body? It is understood that he will grant immortality to it when raised; for the body dedicated to God will be rewarded with a spiritual gift by the merit of its leader, that is, the mind.

“But God has both raised the Lord and will raise us by his power.” The sense is the same, which he wished to confirm by the example of the Lord's resurrection; for Christ is the power of God, by which he will raise us, and has raised him, the Lord. He said this because the Lord himself raised his own body, as the Lord himself says: “Destroy this temple, and I will raise it up in three days. But he said this of the temple of his body” (John 2:19, 21).

“Do you not know that your bodies are members of Christ?” Our bodies are members of Christ, but into the new man who has been created according to God (Eph 4:24), since he is the head of the church. “Shall I then take the members of Christ and make them members of a harlot? Far from it.” He says “Far from it” because members that cling to a harlot cease to be members of Christ.

“Or do you not know that whoever clings to a harlot becomes one body?” He says this because one who mingles himself with defilement becomes one with the one with whom he mingles. For fornication makes both one, so that as they are in nature, so they are one in stain. “The two”, he says, “will be in one flesh” (Gen 2:24). It is plain that, since the woman is from the man, both are in one flesh.

“But whoever clings to the Lord is one spirit.” Because in those who do good, the Spirit of God is shared between God and men.

“Flee fornication.” He rightly warns that fornication must be fled, by which sons of God become sons of the devil. “Every sin that a man commits is outside the body.” For other sins, even if they are produced through the body, do not bind the soul and make it liable to carnal desire in the way that the act of lust, at work in carnal fornication, makes the soul mingle with the body itself; for the soul is so glued to the body that at that moment a man cannot think of or attend to anything else; for the very submersion and absorption in lust and carnal desire makes the mind itself captive. Hence it is added: “But whoever commits fornication sins against his own body.” He shows it is a most grave sin, because by it the whole body perishes; but in other sins a portion perishes, not the whole. For the whole body is man and woman, because woman is a portion of man. For whoever commits another sin sins outside himself; but the fornicator sins against his own flesh. Suppose someone ends his life with a noose or kills himself with a sword: he does not seem to sin against his body but against his soul, on which he does violence. But fornication is a bodily offence, which affects both body and soul; for not without desire of the flesh, since the flesh too has its own motion, does the soul desire to sin against the flesh, although the flesh can do nothing without the soul. By the fact, then, that he sins against the flesh which is from himself (for he referred it to the origin), he is said to sin against his own body; so that he may cease from fornication, as if sparing himself. To Novatian, however, the one who commits fornication here seems to sin not against his own body but against Christ's; for he pronounces it otherwise, so as to say that even the fornicator sins against the Holy Spirit, for the reason for which he was cut off from the church. This can by no means be maintained; for the body of Christ is not one or two Christians, but all, and individuals are members. How, then, does the fornicator sin against the body of Christ, since he does not defile everyone? If it were as Novatian thinks, all other sins would be outside God, and fornication alone would be a sin against God. Even one who goes to the idols would not sin against God, nor one who denies in persecution; for every sin that a man commits is outside the body of Christ, as he thinks. But if he wishes to pronounce this otherwise too, so as to deny that any sin is outside the body of Christ, he will be forced to say that everyone who commits any sin sins against God and against the Holy Spirit; so that the thief and the perjurer and the liar would be said to sin against the Holy Spirit. And how does that stand which the Lord says: “All sins and blasphemy will be forgiven men; but whoever sins against the Holy Spirit, it will not be forgiven him, neither here nor in the age to come” (Matt 12:31–32)? It is certainly clear that, apart from the other sins, there is another sin which is called the sin against the Holy Spirit. To some, again, it seems that the fornicator is said to sin against his own body because he is a member of the church, and in defiling himself he sins against the church, of which he is a member. Then it must be said to one who is a member of the church, when he commits fornication, that he sins not against himself but against the church. But the Apostle says that the fornicator, by sinning against his own portion, sins against his own body.

“Or do you not know that your bodies are a temple of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have from God?” Above (1 Cor 3:16) he said the temple of God, here the temple of the Holy Spirit; because in substance the Spirit is what God is. He said this so that we may keep our bodies undefiled, so that the Holy Spirit may dwell there.

“And you are not your own; for you were bought at a great price.” It is plain that one who has been bought is not his own master but belongs to the one by whom he was bought, so as to do not his own will but his. And since we were bought at a dear price, we ought to serve our Lord the more readily, lest, offended, he return us to the death from which he redeemed us. For at how very dear a price did he buy us, that he gave his blood for us! “Glorify and carry God in your body.” To glorify and carry God in the body is this: to walk according to his law; for through his law he himself is seen in us. To carry God, however, is to show the image of God in deeds well done.

“Now concerning the things about which you wrote to me: it is good for a man not to touch a woman.” Disturbed by the perverse opinions of the false apostles, who taught out of hypocrisy that marriage was to be spurned, so that they might seem purer than others, they asked the Apostle about these things by letter; for since they were not pleased with this opinion, they passed over the other matters and asked only about this. To them, however, he answered that it is indeed good not to touch a woman, although he does not assert that simply.

“But because of fornication”, that is, lest something against the law be committed while what the law does not forbid is avoided, “let each man have his own wife, and let each woman have her own husband.” For those who seek a short cut tend to go astray. For how could it be that these men, whom he found in such great vices, should abstain from their wives? He therefore does not permit it, lest, abstaining from lawful things, they presume to do forbidden ones, as the Manichees do.

“Let the husband render to the wife what is due, and likewise the wife to the husband.” They are subject to each other in this matter, so that, since they are one body, they may have one will in the law of nature. “Let the woman not have power over her own body, but the husband; and likewise let the husband not have power over his own body, but the woman.” He says this because it is lawful neither for husband nor for wife to give his or her body to another; for in this matter they are debtors to each other, lest an occasion for sin be given.

“Do not defraud each other.” He says this so that they may agree in marital matters, lest disagreement give rise to fornication. “Unless by consent for a time”; that is, so that they abstain by agreement for the sake of thanksgivings. “So that you may be free for prayer.” For although one must pray without ceasing (for this meditation is to be practised every day), yet so that they may apply themselves to prayer, he commands them to be free for this, with intervals of time set aside for winning the Lord's favour; for in order that he may have mercy, he must be entreated with greater purity. Although marriage is clean, yet one must abstain even from lawful things, so that prayer may be brought to effect more easily. For in the law too, those who wished to be sanctified, among other things, by the Lord's command, abstained even from raisins, so as to become holier (Num 6:3–4). For when someone does not touch even things permitted, he shows that he wishes to receive what he prays for. “And come back together again.” Since he gives counsel to spouses that after the days of prayer they ought to return to natural relations: “lest Satan tempt you because of your lack of self-control.” He warns them to abstain at intervals of days, lest an occasion be given to the devil, as the apostle Peter says: “Behold, the devil like a roaring lion goes about seeking whom he may devour” (1 Pet 5:8). For if a wife is taken for the sake of begetting children, not much time seems to be granted for that use itself; for both feast days and days of procession, and the very course of conception and childbirth according to the law, show that it ought to cease at these times.

“But I say this by way of indulgence, not by way of command.” It is plain that he gives this counsel to exclude fornication, not to close the way to those striving for a better life. “But I wished all men to be as I myself am.” As far as concerns a kindly and caring teacher, then, he wished all, if it could be, to be as he himself was. What he himself was, he shows at once in what follows: “But each has his own gift from God, one in this way, another in that”; that is, each has God's gift according to his own wish, so that, if he wishes, he obtains the ability by the nod of God himself. Therefore no one ought to be constrained, lest, prohibited from what is lawful, he commit unlawful things; but let him choose for himself what he will follow.

“But I say to the unmarried and to widows: it is good for them if they remain so, as I also do.” He would not say, “it is good for the unmarried to be as I also am”, unless he were intact in body. Nor would he say, “I wished all men to be as I myself am”; for if he had had a wife and said this, he would not have wanted them to be virgins. But far from it; for he served from boyhood in such a way as to have no interest in this matter, since as a young man he was anticipated by the grace of God. After saying that each has his own gift from God, he shows in what matter it is better to be more inclined; for one is helped in that which he is seen to seek with eagerness of mind.

“But if they do not contain themselves, let them marry.” He wants them to strive in this matter, so that they may contain themselves. But if they see that, under the impulse of the flesh, they cannot persevere, because they are not eager enough in this very thing to be helped by God (for God helps the one whom he sees striving with his own strength), let them certainly marry, if they fear to burn. For perhaps they will be able to attain this afterwards; for once the obstacle has been worked off, the will recovers itself with stronger strength. “For it is better to marry than to burn.” He did not say “for it is better to marry than to burn” as if it were good to burn and marrying better; but he followed common usage. For we are accustomed to say: “It is better to make a profit than a loss.” To burn, however, is to be driven or overcome by desires; for when the will consents to the heat of the flesh, it burns; whereas to suffer desires and not be overcome is the mark of an illustrious and perfect man.

“To those who are joined in marriage I command, not I but the Lord.” After speaking to the unmarried and to widows, he addresses those who are joined in marriage, with the Lord's own mouth: “That a wife is not to depart from her husband; but if she departs, she is to remain unmarried.” This is the Apostle's counsel: that if she has departed because of her husband's bad conduct, she should now remain unmarried. “Or be reconciled to her husband.” But if she cannot contain herself, he says, because she does not wish to fight against the flesh, let her be reconciled to her husband; for a woman is not permitted to marry if she has put away her husband because of sexual immorality or apostasy, or if, driven by unlawful lust, he seeks [perverted] use of his wife; because the inferior does not in every respect use the same law as the superior. If, however, the husband has apostatized, or seeks to pervert the use of his wife, the woman can neither marry another nor return to him. “And that a husband is not to put away his wife.” But “except for the cause of sexual immorality” is understood. And therefore he did not add, as he did about the woman, “but if he departs, let him remain so”; because a husband is permitted to take a wife if he has put away a wife who sins: for the husband is not bound by the law as the woman is; for the head of the woman is the man.

“But to the rest I say, not the Lord.” He said this to show what the Lord commanded with his own mouth and what he granted to his [the Apostle's] authority; for the Lord speaks through him too. For he says: “Do you seek proof of Christ who speaks in me?”

“If any brother has an unbelieving wife, and she consents to live with him, let him not put her away. And if any woman has an unbelieving husband, and he consents to live with her, let her not leave her husband.” He said this because in those beginnings, when both had been Gentiles, it happened that one of them believed; and because the faithless shuddered at the worship of God, and the believers likewise at the defilement of their past error, he therefore commands that, if [the unbelievers] were content to live with those who had changed, the faithful too should be content to be with them.

“For the unbelieving husband is sanctified through the believing wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the believing husband.” He shows that they have the benefit of good will, because they have no horror of the name of Christ; and it belongs to the protection of the household in which the sign of the cross is made, by which death was conquered; for it is sanctification. “Otherwise your children would be unclean.” Their children would be unclean if they put away those who were willing to live with them and joined themselves to others; for they would be adulterers, and through this their children too would be illegitimate, and therefore unclean. “But as it is they are holy.” They are holy because they were born of lawful marriages, and because they were born under the veneration of the Creator on the better side. For as whatever is done through dedication to idols is unclean, so whatever is done under the profession of God the Creator is holy.

“But if the unbeliever departs, let him depart.” He guards the purpose of religion, commanding that Christians not abandon their marriages; but if the unbeliever departs out of hatred of God, the believer will not be guilty of the dissolved marriage; for God's cause is greater than marriage's. “For a brother or sister is not subject to servitude in such cases.” That is, the reverence of marriage is not owed to one who shudders at the author of marriage; for a marriage that is without devotion to God is not ratified; and through this it is not a sin for the one who is put away for God's sake if he joins himself to another. For contempt of the Creator dissolves the right of marriage concerning the one who is left, so that he is not accused when joined to another. But the unbeliever who departs is recognized as sinning both against God and against the marriage, because he would not have the marriage under devotion to God. And so the faith of marriage need not be kept to him, since he withdrew precisely so as not to hear that the God of the Christians is the author of marriage. For if Ezra caused unbelieving wives or husbands to be put away, so that God might be propitious and not angry, if they took others from their own race (for it was not commanded them that, having sent these away, they should not marry others at all), how much more, if the unbeliever departs, will [the believer] have free choice, if [the believer] wishes to marry a husband of the same law? For that ought not to be reckoned a marriage which was made outside God's decree; but when one afterwards recognizes this and grieves at having transgressed, one amends oneself so as to deserve pardon. But if both believe, they confirm the marriage through the knowledge of God. “But God has called us in peace.” It is true that one must not quarrel with one who departs; for he departs out of hatred of God, and through this he is not worthy to be kept.

“For how do you know, wife, whether you will save your husband? Or how do you know, husband, whether you will save your wife?” He says this because those who have no horror of the name of Christ can perhaps believe.

“Only, as God has apportioned to each.” The Lord has apportioned to each when he is to be saved; that is, he knows when he can believe, and waits for him. And here he teaches that they are to be waited for, and that one ought not to take offence at them, because their hope must be guarded; but if they themselves depart, they are to be let go. “As God has called each one, so let him walk.” That is, if one who believes is joined in marriage, let him not desert, neither husband nor wife, but let him remain so, whether Jew or Greek. “As I teach in all the churches.” So as to persuade them that he hands on to them nothing different from what he hands on to others; so that, when they hear that others of this faith are taught this, they may follow it more readily. For a person is easily inclined if he sees that a companion has consented.

“Was anyone called circumcised? Let him not draw on a foreskin.” This is what he said, that each should walk as he was called; so that a Jew who has become a Christian should not think himself somewhat unworthy because he has no foreskin, giving glory to the foreskin. “Was anyone called in uncircumcision? Let him not be circumcised.” So that a gentile who has been called may not think he ought to be circumcised, because he hears that the sons of Abraham are preferred. For they are not preferred because they are circumcised, but by the merit of Abraham, whose sons they are in both respects, if they believe; if not, they will be worse than the gentiles; for it is worse to have been and not to be than never to have been.

“Circumcision is nothing, and uncircumcision is nothing.” It is plain that it neither harms nor helps. “But the keeping of the commandments of God”: that is, faith makes God favourable, if it is approved by good works.

“Let each one remain in the calling in which he was called.” This confirms what he said above. “Were you called as a slave? Do not let it trouble you; but even if you can become free, rather make use of it.” He exhorts the slave, serving his earthly master well out of the fear of God, to make himself worthy of freedom; lest, hearing perhaps “Were you called as a slave? Do not let it trouble you”, he become more careless about the good service of his earthly master, and the teaching of Christ be blasphemed; for one who serves well in these earthly matters lays up merit for himself with God, and so wins God's favour; since the Lord said: “Whoever is faithful in the least is faithful also in much” (Luke 16:10).

“For he who was called in the Lord as a slave is the Lord's freedman.” Rescued from sins, which truly prove men slaves, he becomes a freedman; for that man is wholly a slave who acts foolishly, as the ancients also held, who called all the wise free and all the foolish slaves. Hence Solomon too says: “Free men will serve a wise slave” (Prov 17:2). One who believes, then, even if he is a slave for a time, because he does a wise thing in believing in Christ, becomes the Lord's freedman. If, then, sins make men slaves, as Ham the son of Noah was made a slave because of sin and folly, when anyone receives forgiveness of sins he is made a freedman. “Likewise he who was called free is a slave of Christ.” He advanced from being free to becoming a slave of Christ; for he was free from God, which is the greatest crime; and therefore, having lost a bitter freedom contrary to him, he obtained a condition that would profit him, as the Lord says: “Take my yoke upon you, for it is pleasant, and my burden, for it is light” (Matt 11:29–30). So he cut off pride and made unity, so that neither the slave, from shame at his condition, thinks himself despised, nor the free man, puffed up with arrogance, sets himself above the slave.

“You were bought at a price; do not become slaves of men.” It is true that we were bought so dearly that we could have been redeemed by no one except Christ, who is rich in all things. One who is bought at a price ought to serve the more, so as to make some return to the buyer. Those bought by God, then, that is, by Christ, ought not to be slaves of men. The slaves of men are those who subject themselves to human superstitions. The Apostle, however, is recalling what he rebuked at the head of the letter, that they said, “I am of Paul”, and another, “I of Apollos” (1 Cor 1:12). Yet he gave a point for confessing Christ as God, when he showed that the slaves of Christ are not to be called slaves of a man.

“Let each one, brothers, remain with God in that in which he was called.” This is what he said above, which he repeats so as to commend it fully.

“Now concerning virgins I have no command of the Lord.” This he answered to their writings, as he said above: “Now concerning the things about which you wrote to me”, and so on (7:1). “But I give counsel, as one who has obtained mercy from the Lord to be faithful.” He says he has not received a command concerning virgins, because the author of marriage could not command a thing contrary to marriage, lest he should condemn his own former act. “But I give counsel”, he says: not because it displeases, nor because it is coloured by flattery; for he obtained grace for this, to be fit to give saving counsel.

“I think, then, that this is good because of the present necessity; because it is best for a man to be so.” He says it is good to remain a virgin. And to show this more absolutely, he says “because of the present necessity, because it is best”, so that it might be recognized that between good and best nothing is so splendid and useful as virginity; for he teaches that virginity is more commendable not only before God but also in the present life, since it does not know the necessities of the time that marriage suffers; and it knows nothing of the sorrows of childbirth, nor of bereavement of children. So, to exhort them to aim at it, he shows that it gains, for those who love it, escape from the troubles of the present necessity; so that, learning that it has a better place not only before God but also in the present, they might seek it with all diligence. For it has only one labour, to conquer the desire of the flesh, and in all other things it is free. For since the flesh is in its origin and nature, its use seems pleasant and its affection sweet; therefore to overcome these things is no small glory.

“Are you bound to a wife? Do not seek release.” These are counsels of remedy; for he says that no one ought to be released from his wife except for the cause of fornication. For often men who put away their own wives, under the cover of continence, deceive other women, when their resolve grows cold. But if one placed with his wife wishes to live a better life, let him exhort her that they may live more purely without offence. “Are you released from a wife? Do not seek a wife.” So that, knowing this to be more acceptable to God and free from necessity, he may not seek a wife; yet in such a way that he refrains from other women. If not, what use is it to suppress the desire of the flesh, that is, to spurn a lawful thing, and to fall under unlawful ones?

“But if you take a wife, you have not sinned.” He certainly does not sin, because he does what is permitted. But if he scorns it, he lays up merit and a crown for himself. For it takes great patience not to touch what is not forbidden. “And if a virgin marries, she has not sinned.” She does not sin, because before God she is free in this matter. “Yet such will have tribulations of the flesh.” That is, even if they are free from sin, yet in this life they will have tribulations: the groaning of the womb, the rearing of children, livelihood, provisions, dowries, sickness, furnishing the house, the needs of a wife, the dominion of a husband. “But I spare you.” He spares when he rather urges them toward the things that exclude the tribulations of the flesh and the cares mentioned. He can also seem to spare in that he permits, and does not oppose those who wish for what he shows to be burdensome.

“This, then, I say, brothers: the time has been shortened, and it remains.” In saying that the time is shortened and remaining, he indicated that the end is imminent for the world, although he knew that times still remained. But he ought not to have written otherwise, for the sake of those who would read these things when a very short time would remain; lest, while the day of judgment was always thought to be far off, it should either not be feared or be thought false. But what is said to be imminent, while it is still far off, is of much profit; for it strikes men with fear to lead a better life. Indeed, here in the present, how anxious are those who have cases before judges when the day of the trial is said to be near? This is the kind of thing he says in another place: “as deceivers, and yet true” (2 Cor 6:8). “So that those who have wives may be as though they had none.” For since the end of the world is near, they ought not to be anxious about begetting nor given to that use itself; so that, more eager and watchful, trained in divine works and in care for the law, they may fight back when the battle is imminent. For there will be afflictions such as there have never been, and many will fall into the snare of the devil; indeed none of us wants these things to come in his time, fearing the afflictions foretold by the Saviour (Matt 24:21 and following). Therefore, as we wish for ourselves, let us provide for others too; so that we may abstain from begetting many children, more devoted to prayer and to God's service, foreseeing the day of judgment; lest both we be unprepared through the hindrances of present necessity, and they incur what we fear. He wants the faithful, then, to refrain even from lawful things, so that they may appear not only innocent but also glorious; for to pass over permitted things belongs to the greatest virtue; and not to desire forbidden things is not far from it.

“And those who weep, as though not weeping”: for, knowing that the end of the world is near, and that the consolation of those who are perhaps oppressed for God's righteousness will soon come, let them console one another with this hope. “And those who rejoice, as though not rejoicing”: for let those who rejoice in the present know that mourning will soon come, namely to those who rejoice in the world, doubting God's judgment. “And those who buy, as though not possessing”: for let believers who buy, knowing that little time remains for the world, so act as not to spend all their care on a thing that will soon perish, but rather to care for their soul, which they know to be eternal.

“And those who use this age, as though not using it”: that is, so that they do not rely on this use, because it will soon perish when the world falls. “For the form of this world is passing away.” Since he said the world will be ended, he shows that its form passes away; and that this is the end, that is, not that its substance passes away, but its form. So if the form of the world will perish, there is surely no doubt that all things in the world perish. It passes away because the world grows old daily.

“I want you to be without anxiety.” For when the anxiety of the age is lessened, one is more eagerly watchful in the things of God. How we can be without anxiety he shows, saying: “He who is without a wife thinks of the things of the Lord.” For when the anxiety of marital affairs, which alone in the world is heavier than all the rest, has been cut away, the mind is trained to win God's favour; provided, however, that the mind strips itself of these troubles with this hope, that it may serve God the more.

“But he who is with a wife is anxious about the things of this world, how he may please his wife.” For care of a wife and children is a thought of the world; for among other things men sometimes commit punishable deeds so as not to offend them, as Zerubbabel, one of the three chamberlains of Artaxerxes, relates (Esdr. 4:13); for a gloomy wife in the house is a great bitterness. He is called divided because he cannot both apply himself to divine things and do his wife's will. “The woman and the virgin are divided.” Divided not by nature but in conduct; for we read in Numbers that women are called virgins (Num 31). The anxiety of a woman, then, is one thing, that of a virgin another; yet when 'woman' is said, it is uncertain what it means unless a specification follows; but when 'virgin' is said, the expression is plain. Here the Apostle put 'virgin' after 'woman' so as to signify a woman who is not a virgin; for by this he wanted to show that the virgin is free from the wearisome labours which a woman joined to a husband suffers.

“For she who is not married is anxious about the things of the Lord, that she may be holy both in body and in spirit”: that is, in mind; for while, in hope of heavenly things, she does not take on the anxiety for a husband and children, she thinks about the Lord, how she may keep the resolve devoted to God; provided, however, that the mind, in a clean body, casting away earthly things, devotes itself to heavenly things. For it is the mind that either sanctifies or pollutes the body. For what use is it to have a clean body and a polluted soul, since it is by the merit of the soul that the body is either honoured or condemned? “But she who is married thinks of the things of this world, how she may please her husband.” For, bound by the marital law, she is anxious how to fulfil the right of the marital duty, subject to worldly necessities.

“But I say this for your own benefit, not to cast a snare upon you, but toward what is honourable.” Since to some what is more useful or better seems harsh and heavy because of the habit of temporal use, after giving his reasons he exhorts them with the affection of love, simply saying that what he says is more useful and more honourable. It is honourable because holy and clean; useful because it is worthier before God and light in this age. What then shall we say? If virgins think of God, and those joined to husbands of the world, what hope is left for those who marry before God? For if it is so, their salvation is in doubt; but we see virgins thinking of the world, and women joined in marriage devoting themselves to the Lord's works. To these virgins holiness will not be credited by God, and these marriages will have a reward with God; because, though bound by earthly ties and the bonds of the flesh, they took pains to merit some immortal reward in the future. But to those others not only will virginity not be credited, but they will even be subjected to punishment, who, under the cover of a better hope, occupying their life and conduct with worldly care and anxiety, made themselves slow to do God's works; as the prophet Jeremiah says: “Cursed is he who does the works of God negligently” (Jer 48:10). These are the ones of whom he says in another letter: “having indeed the appearance of godliness, but denying its power” (2 Tim 3:5). But the Apostle speaks to those who desire with wonderful devotion to obey the heavenly precepts, showing and teaching by what short cut one goes more quickly to God; for one who wishes to remain a virgin to win God's favour, knowing what reward one can receive who refrains from what is lawful in order to become better, at the same time spurns all the hindrances of the flesh, not unaware that these are what hold back the runner's step like the weight of fetters.

“But if anyone sees something shameful in himself regarding his virgin, if she is past puberty, and so it must be, let him do what he wishes; he does not sin if she marries.” Since above he was so stirred up, with reasons given, about keeping virginity and continence that by comparison with them marriages seemed almost useless and to be cast away, now, lest he be thought to deny marriage, he shows that the virgin does not sin if she marries; but that she undertakes a thing of very great labour, which has no reward with God, as it has no punishment; for he wants Christians to be better in all things. If, then, a girl is in desire of marriage, already ripe for its use, it is better for her to marry publicly according to the law that has been granted than to do it shamefully in secret and be put to shame for it.

“But he who has resolved in his heart, being firm, having no necessity, but having power over his own will, and has decided this in his heart, to keep his virgin, does well.” He says this so that one who has a virgin whose mind is not set on marriage should keep her, and not press on her the kindling of marriage, when he sees she has no wish to marry. If benefits are to be granted, how much more are they not to be taken away?

“So too he who gives his virgin in marriage does well.” He does well, because what he does is lawful. “And he who does not give her in marriage does better.” He does better because he both lays up merit for her with God and frees her from the anxiety of the age.

“A woman is bound by the law as long as her husband lives.” He pursues these things in order to teach that a woman, even if she has been cast out by her husband, does not have permission to marry. “But if her husband has died, she is set free.” These too belong to the reasons given above, so as to show how blessed the virgin is, since she is subject to no one but God alone. For she seems to conquer natural subjection, when she raises up what is humbled by nature. “Let her marry whom she wishes, only in the Lord”: that is, let her marry the one she thinks suitable for her; for unwilling marriages tend to have bad outcomes. “Only in the Lord”: that is, let her marry without suspicion of shamefulness, and marry a man of her own religion; this is to marry in the Lord.

“But she will be more blessed if she remains so, according to my counsel.” When he says above, “let her marry”, he speaks by natural law; although first marriages are from God, while second marriages are permitted. Indeed first marriages are celebrated solemnly under God's blessing; but second marriages lack glory even in the present; they are granted because of incontinence, and because the younger widows tend to fall; and for this reason he concedes second marriages. But since it is better that she contain herself, so as to be worthier in the future, he gives counsel, outstanding by spiritual reasoning, that she contain herself. “For I think that I too have the Spirit of God.” So as to show that his counsel is sound and provident, he commends it with lofty meaning by the humility of his word.

“Now concerning things sacrificed to idols, we know that we all have knowledge.” Now he is going to speak about knowledge; what the knowledge is he does not say at once, but shows in what follows, saying that an idol is nothing. “Knowledge puffs up.” It is plain that one who has knowledge glories in this very thing, if not outwardly, then within himself, because he is wise. For this is the way of one who knows, to glory in himself; so it puffs up. “But love builds up.” So knowledge is great and useful to itself when it is humbled by love, so that it may grow further. For it is tempered by love, so as not to be too undiluted and make the knower drunk, so that he exalts himself. For as wine not tempered by a mixture of water unsettles the mind, so knowledge too makes one proud unless it is tempered. For all things alone are unpleasant and harmful; for neither is bread eaten well alone, nor are other foods pleasing without mixing, but harmful; therefore love builds up. Love itself, though it is called by one name, consists of many things; for it cannot exist without patience, nor without humility, nor without simplicity of heart. These, then, were puffed up through the knowledge that an idol is nothing, who, to the hurt of the salvation of unskilled brothers, ate the meat of sacrifices, knowing that it is lawful to eat meat, and that, since an idol is nothing, the eater is not defiled. These were a stumbling block to the brothers, not having love before their eyes; for it was better to forgo meat than to cause the brothers to stumble. For their knowledge destroyed the minds of unskilled brothers, who thought there was some grace there at the idol, when they saw more knowledgeable brothers present there and not shrinking from it. Therefore he says, “Love builds up”, so that, caring for the salvation of the brothers, they might not use the rights of knowledge there, lest they cause them to stumble. “But if anyone thinks he knows something, he does not yet know as he ought to know.” He shows that those very people who glory in knowledge have not known as one ought to know. For while they do not pursue love, which is the mother of all good things, they do not know as they ought. So for knowledge to bear fruit it must subject itself to love.

“But if anyone loves God, he is known by him.” The one who loves God is the one who moderates his knowledge for the sake of love, so as to benefit his brother, for whom Christ died. “Concerning, then, the foods of things sacrificed to images.” Now he treats the matter itself, so as to show by reason that knowledge, when love is scorned, is not only of no benefit but even harmful. “We know that an image is nothing, and that there is no God but one.” It is true; for among Christians there is one God.

“Although there are those who are called gods and lords, whether in heaven or on earth.” For by the pagans the sun and moon and the other stars are called heavenly gods; on earth they call Apollo, Aesculapius, Hercules, Minerva gods and lords. “Yet for us there is one God the Father, from whom are all things, and we in him.” For all things, wherever they are, are from him. But when he says “and we in him”, he distinguished us from the rest, who, though they are from him, are not in him, as long as they do not yet believe. “And one Lord Jesus, through whom are all things, and we through him.” For all things are from the Father, but were created through the Son. But when he says “and we through him”, he means that we have been re-formed in the knowledge of God through him through whom we had been created; for, having been made through him with the rest, after the stupor of mind and of ignorance we came to know through him the mystery of the one God. He spoke, then, of one God the Father and one Lord Jesus his Son; so that, since God cannot fail to be Lord, likewise the Lord also might be understood to be God; he showed that God and Lord are one, preserving the mode of the one principle.

“But knowledge is not in everyone.” That is, not all believers know the mystery of the one God; so some of those who believe think there is some divine power in images. “For some, with consciousness of the idol until now, eat it as sacrificed to an image.” For some of the people still ate of the sacrifices with veneration for the image, as if there were some divinity there. “And their conscience, being weak, is defiled.” The conscience is stained if it is weak concerning God.

“But food does not commend us to God.” It is true, since we will not please God just because we eat everything, nor offend him if we scorn some things. “For neither if we eat shall we abound, nor if we do not eat shall we lack.” For if the food of sacrifices is scorned, there will surely be no lack of something to eat; but if it is taken, there will be no abundance such that nothing else is needed; and therefore it is to be rejected, since one does not live without other food, and it is a stumbling block to the brothers.

“But see that your liberty does not perhaps become an offence to the weak.” That is, lest, because you say it is lawful for you to eat meat from a sacrifice, since you know an idol is nothing, you give rise to offence for brothers who do not yet know that an idol is nothing.

“For if anyone sees one who has knowledge reclining in an idol's temple, will not his conscience, being weak, be built up to eat of things offered to images?” He said this because someone who sees a knowledgeable brother, invited to an idol's temple, reclining and eating the meat of sacrifices, thinks there is some grace there, and he too begins to eat the meat of sacrifices, not with the conscience with which the other, because of his knowledge, knows that an idol is nothing, but with that by which he thinks there is a divine power there, since he sees the knowledgeable brother eating there and not shrinking from it. “And will the weak brother perish by your knowledge, the brother for whom Christ died?” The weak man will perish if he eats of the sacrifices against faith in the one God; and these are, as it were, the words of one who is angry and shows what evil knowledge can produce if it is not tempered by love. “By your knowledge”: that is, your expertise kills him, when he sees done by you what he understands otherwise. And you will be the occasion of death to the brother whom Christ, to redeem him, allowed himself to be crucified. And therefore he teaches that one must sometimes set knowledge aside for the sake of love; for without doubt the salvation of a brother is worth more than food; for it is lawful indeed, but not expedient. This will be to have known as one ought to know.

“But sinning thus against the brothers and striking their weak conscience, you sin in Christ.” For when they do not strive after the love by which Christ freed us, they sin in Christ, not against Christ; for to sin against Christ is to deny Christ, but to sin in Christ is to sin in the things that are Christ's. Just as one who is under the law is said to sin in the law, so those who are under Christ are said to sin in Christ.

“Therefore, if food makes my brother stumble, I will never eat meat, lest I make my brother stumble.” He teaches that love must be pursued so far that lawful things are counted as unlawful, so as not to harm a brother. For how great an evil it is not to transgress through unlawful things, and to give offence through things that are permitted; so that the law is kept in unlawful things and not observed in lawful ones, when they are eaten thoughtlessly! For the law permitted what it allowed in such a way that there is still a measure they must keep. It is certainly lawful to have a wife, but if she has committed fornication, she must be cast off; so too it is lawful to eat meat, but if it has been offered to idols, it must be rejected.

“Am I not an apostle? Am I not free? Have I not seen Jesus our Lord?” While he seems to deny, he affirms; for he speaks in anger. For he proves he is an apostle because he was sent to the gentiles, the Lord saying to him: “I will send you to the gentiles” (Acts 22:21). He shows he is free because he coveted nothing of anyone, nor taught with flattery. And he saw Jesus our Lord while he was praying in the temple at Jerusalem (Acts 22:18). “Are you not my work in the Lord?” They are his work because he himself planted them in the Lord, preaching the word of God to them for a year and six months.

“If I am not an apostle to others, yet I am to you”; for by the Jews who believed and nevertheless kept the law he was denied to be an apostle. For he was already teaching that one ought not to be circumcised nor keep the sabbath; and since the other apostles, because of offence, avoided this matter, he seemed to teach differently; therefore he was denied to be an apostle by these; for he was an apostle to those who had seen in him the marks of power. “For you are the seal of my apostleship in the Lord”; for by his preaching they were converted from idols to faith in the one God.

“My defence to those who question me is this.” Now he begins to plead the case which he set out above, saying: “All things are lawful for me, but I will be brought under no one's power. Food for the belly and the belly for food” (1 Cor 6:12–13). So he begins this case, saying: “My defence to those who question me is this.” And what it is he added, saying:

“Have we not the power to eat and drink?” This is what he had said: “All things are lawful for me.” “Have we not the power to take a woman about with us, as the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas?” He added “and Cephas” because, though he was first among the apostles, he did not refuse the support offered. Cephas is Simon Peter himself. For women, out of desire for the Lord's teaching and eager for virtues, followed the apostles, ministering to them both support and services, as they also followed the Saviour, ministering to him from their means.

“Or do only I and Barnabas not have the power to do this?” That is, we have the power to do it, but we do not wish to. He says “to do” instead of “to receive”, to speak more honourably. And to confirm this, he adds examples, saying:

“Who ever serves as a soldier at his own expense? Who plants a vineyard and does not eat of its fruit? Who shepherds a flock of sheep and does not receive of its milk? Do I say these things according to man?” That is, do I follow a human opinion? “Does not the law say the same?” He shows that the testimonies mentioned above agree with the divine teachings, so as to show that he refuses, certainly not without reason, to accept support from them, since by so many examples he shows that it is to be both given and received.

“For it is written in the law (Deut 25:4): You shall not muzzle the mouth of the ox that treads out the grain. Is God concerned about oxen?” Let us settle this in a few words for the time being; for it is written in the prophet Jonah: “I will not spare the city in which there dwell more than a hundred and twenty thousand people, and many cattle?” (Jonah 4:11). And the Psalmist: “Men and beasts”, he says, “you will save” (Ps 35:7). How, then, does God not care about oxen and cattle? But he does not care about oxen and cattle for their own sake, but for ours, for whose sake they were made; so he cares about us, not about them.

“Or rather”, he says, “he says it for our sake; for it was written for our sake.” For by figure everything said passes over to us. “Because he who ploughs in hope and threshes ought to receive the fruit of his hope.” It is true, for one labours in this hope, to gather the fruit.

“If we have sown spiritual things for you, is it a great thing if we reap your carnal things?” He says it is not a great thing, nor an even exchange, if those who preach the kingdom of God and feed the church with heavenly food were to take nourishment for the body; so that, handing on eternal things, they might obtain temporal ones.

“If others share in power over you, do not we more?” For if those who are not your fathers through the gospel, and do not have the same affection toward you, have the right to receive, how much more we? And 'your apostles' is understood, because Barnabas too was an apostle. “But we have not used this power; rather we endure all things, so as not to put any hindrance in the way of the gospel of Christ.” He brought out the meaning he had long hidden; for he shows that he did not wish to accept support, though it was lawful, so that the vigour of the gospel's authority might not grow torpid. For the false apostles flattered sinners, wishing to receive, so that they did not seem to themselves to sin, being subject to them; but since this was contrary to the discipline of the gospel, he does not wish to receive, so that he may rebuke freely and not be found among their number. For so that the right of the Christian rule might remain, he made lawful things unlawful, because those men gave offence through licence.

“Do you not know that those who work in the shrines live from the shrine, and those who serve at the altar share in the altar?” By 'shrines' he means the law of the gentiles, by 'altar' that of the Jews. For so the Lord decreed through Moses (Deut 18:3–5), that the priests should take a portion of what had been offered.

“So too the Lord Jesus ordained that those who proclaim the gospel should live from the gospel.” God, then, did not follow the pattern of the gentiles through Moses, but natural reason itself has this, that one should live from the place where he works. This reasoning, then, he decreed for nature itself and for human life. Yet adding these things to the pile, he makes the case weightier, so as not to make light or odious what he commends by so many testimonies; and yet he does not wish to benefit by it himself, lest he humble his freedom to rebuke.

“But I have used none of these things.” After showing in many ways that it is lawful to receive, yet he has no need of it; for to receive from sinners is harmful, as I mentioned above. “And I have not written these things so that it may be so done for me; for it is good for me rather to die. No one shall empty my glory.” He says his glory consists in this, that the severity of the gospel remains; and he chose rather to die than to violate the rights of the gospel, knowing that this profits him more for future salvation. For he refused to let the service owed be paid to him by these people, lest by it they gain confidence to sin.

“For if I preach the gospel, I have no ground for glory; for necessity lies upon me.” As the Lord says: “When you have done what I tell you, say: We are useless servants; we have done what we ought to do” (Luke 17:10). “For woe will be to me”, he says, “if I do not preach the gospel.” For a servant sent by his master does what he has been commanded even unwillingly; if not, he must be held to it with blows. Indeed Moses was sent unwillingly to Pharaoh (Exod 4:13–14), and Jonah was compelled to preach to the Ninevites (Jonah 1:3). “For if I do this willingly, I have a reward.” It is plain that no one receives a reward for something he does unwillingly. For if he is willing, he is worthy of a reward, because he agrees with his master; and what is done willingly is done better. “But if unwillingly, a stewardship has been entrusted to me.” Nor is this obscure: one who does something without devotion does it not by will but by necessity. For because it is not in his own power, he does unwillingly what he has been commanded.

“What, then, will my reward be? That in preaching the gospel I may make the gospel free of charge, so as not to abuse my power in the gospel.” Restraining the boastfulness of his words, he glories, and wants it understood how great a reward he deserves, because he does not use his power in the gospel, when he refuses support offered, lest he humble the force of preaching. This is what is lawful but not expedient, for the salvation of the brothers, so that they may be corrected. He wants to be a pattern to others, so that where they see it is not expedient they do not use even lawful things; if not, they become guilty from a lawful thing, which they take in such a way that it turns to harm.

“For though I am free from all, I have made myself the servant of all, so that I might gain more.” He is free from all since he handed on the gospel to no one with flattery, nor coveted anything of anyone except his salvation, nor accepted from anyone more generous support, as the price of hypocrisy, for the enjoyment of luxuries. He says he made himself the servant of all in that through humility he showed himself like all those weak in mind, so as to strengthen them by patience for future salvation, cherishing the minds of those who either sinned or followed divine things more slowly, so that they would not take it badly to be rebuked.

“And to the Jews I became as a Jew, so as to gain the Jews.” He seems, as it were, to have pretended, so as to become all things to all, as flatterers are accustomed to do; but it is not so; for a divine man and spiritual physician, knowing the causes and wounds of all, cherishes them with great care and suffers with them; for we have certain things in common with all people. He became, then, as a Jew to the Jews, because, on account of the offence to them, he circumcised Timothy (Acts 16:3), and, having been purified, went up into the temple, lest they take occasion through him to blaspheme (Acts 21:26). He did a thing, then, which ought already to have ceased, but he did it according to the law. For he also agreed with them that the law and the prophets were from God, and from them showed that this is the Christ who was promised, so that his agreement might have effect.

“To those who are under the law, as though I were under the law (though I myself am not under the law), so as to gain those who are under the law.” Those who are under the law are known to be the Samaritans; for they accept only the law, that is, the five books of Moses. They are by origin from the Persians and Assyrians, whom the king of Assyria, when the children of Israel had been taken into captivity, placed to inhabit the regions of Samaria (2 Kgs 17:6, 24); therefore they also worship fire in the Persian manner. To them, then, the Apostle, by not denying that the law was from God, became as one under the law; but from it, with gentle words, he handed on to them that Christ was to be understood, just like that Samaritan woman who said to the Lord: “I know that the Messiah is coming” (John 4:25), taught by the law. “To those who are without law, as though I were without law (though I was not without the law of God, but under the law of Christ), so as to gain those who are without law.” He says this because when he is in the law of Christ, he is in the law of God; for what is Christ's is God's, and what is God's is Christ's, as he says: “All mine are yours, and yours are mine” (John 17:10). “So as to gain those who are without law.” For when he agrees with them, that is, with the gentiles, according to natural reasoning, that the world and the things in it were made by God, and that the soul is immortal, and that we have our origin from him (for so he says in the Acts of the Apostles: “And as some of you have said, For we are also his offspring”, Acts 17:28), he became thus as one without law, by which means he introduced to them that Christ himself is the one whom God chose beforehand to judge the world, and that he is the one through whom he made all things.

“To the weak I became weak, so as to gain the weak.” He became weak when he abstained from lawful things for the sake of weak brothers, lest he give rise to stumbling for them. “I have become all things to all, so that I might save all.” This was the mark of a wise and spiritual man, that, having become all things to all, he yet did not go beyond the purpose of religion; for where he yielded, he yielded so as to make progress; nor did he do anything other than what the law commanded.

“But I do all things for the sake of the gospel, so that I may become a sharer in it.” That is, I do all the things mentioned above, so that I may become a sharer in the will of the gospel, which it has concerning human salvation.

“Do you not know that those who run in the stadium all run, but one receives the palm?” Now he wishes to set out something else; and so by this example he shows how great is the benefit of our law, in which the palm is promised not to one but to all. “So run that you may obtain.” He wants them to run eagerly toward the promise, because it is great.

“But everyone who strives in the contest abstains from all things”: from all the things that the same discipline teaches must be avoided, though they know that one is to be crowned; how much more must we observe this, since salvation is promised to all! “And they so that they may receive a corruptible crown; but we an incorruptible.” In this too the gift is very different; and therefore we ought to be more diligent, for whom is kept a spiritual crown, woven not of earthly and fading flowers but of eternal jewels, like a royal diadem.

“So I run, not as at an uncertainty.” He declares that he runs with great hope, holding as certain what has been promised. “So I fight, not as one beating the air.” That is, I contend not with words rather than with deeds. “But I chastise my body and bring it into servitude.” To chastise the body is to restrain it with fasts, and to give it the things that serve life, not luxury. It is brought into servitude when it carries out not its own will but the spirit's. “Lest perhaps, preaching to others, I myself be found reprobate.” He shows that he restrains his body so that he himself too may be counted worthy of the reward that he preaches to others; lest, having healed others, he himself remain in his wound. He affirms, then, that the hope of his preaching is sure, when he shows by his deeds that he pursues what he teaches; for one who acts otherwise than he preaches makes his hearers suspicious, so that they doubt the promises. So by his example he exhorts that one must exercise oneself not more with words than with deeds.

“For I do not want you to be ignorant, brothers, that our fathers were all under the cloud, and all passed through the sea, and all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea” (Exod 13:21; 14:22). By the example of the Jews, who gave offence through their negligence, he wants us to be careful; and so he says they were under the cloud, because all the things that were done were done as a figure of us, so that they had the image of our truth. For, covered by the cloud and kept safe from their adversaries, they are said to have been baptized, since they were freed from death. For while those, that is, the Egyptians, died in the sea, these, with Moses leading, passed over safely and were rescued from death, which is what baptism grants. For their past evils were not imputed to them, but, purified through the sea and the cloud, they were prepared to receive the law and the form of our future sacrament.

“And all ate the same spiritual food, and all drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that followed them, and the rock was Christ.” He calls the manna and the water which flowed from the rock (Exod 16:15; 17:6) spiritual, because they were not produced by the law of the world, but created for a time by the power of God without a mixing of elements, containing in themselves a figure of the future mystery which we now receive in commemoration of Christ the Lord. Therefore it was also called the bread of angels, because it was created by the power by which the angels subsist; signifying this, that one was to come from heaven who would feed spiritually. Hence too the manna first came from heaven on the Lord's day, to fill the people. The rock, however, is called 'following', and is understood to be Christ. For where human help failed them, Christ was present; so he followed, so that where it failed he would come to their aid. For it was not the rock that gave the water, but Christ.

“But with most of them God was not well pleased.” He said this because they did not understand the benefit they had received. “For they were laid low in the desert” (Num 26:65). It is fitting that one who has obtained great things and distrusts in small ones should not only fail to obtain these but also lose those. Since, then, he exhorted them above to better things, and says that he himself labours to come worthily to the promise, now, to bind and persuade them by the terror of this example, he says that the Jews then received God's gift and grace in the same way as we have; and that because they were careless and doubtful of God's promise, they were laid low in the desert; so as to show that he afflicts himself for this reason, lest he be found among their number, and that therefore they must labour to become his imitators.

“Now these things were done as a figure of us, so that we might not be desirers of evil things, as they also desired.” This is the sense and reasoning that I mentioned above. “Nor be servants of images, as some of them were.” Now he touches those who, reclining in an idol's temple, thought it was not a sin. “As it is written (Exod 32:6): The people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play”: before the idol, of course; so that those who feasted in an idol's temple might not think themselves free of guilt. For while Moses was on the mountain with God, the image of the calf having been made, after the offering for its dedication, “the people sat down to eat and drink, and rose up to play.” This is self-indulgence, because, always taking their pleasure, they were found unfaithful in the things of God. And so he instructs us, lest by consenting to self-indulgence in an idol's temple we fall into this distrust.

“Nor let us commit fornication, as some of them committed fornication, and twenty-three thousand men fell in one day” (Num 25:1). This was repaid to them when they defiled themselves with the Midianite women; for God's anger arose against them, which was quieted by the zeal of Phinehas the priest, who had zeal for God, so that more would not die. “Nor let us tempt Christ, as some of them tempted, and perished by serpents.” Those who disparaged God are said to have tempted Christ, because it was Christ who spoke to Moses. Indeed, so that we may not be found in the same case, he warns that we not be handed over to the devil, of whom the serpents bear the figure.

“Nor grumble, as some of them grumbled” (Num 14:1). To grumble is to complain falsely to one another about those set over them and their rulers, as far as the sense of the place is concerned; for grumbling can also arise from a just cause. “And they perished by the destroyer.” That is, they passed into the place of Judas, anticipating him; for, betraying Christ, he was destroyed from the number of the apostles by God the judge. By these examples he calls us to a more correct life, so that by his warnings we may deserve either a reward, if we are obedient, or a heavier punishment if disobedient. For there is no doubt that those who sin will be subjected to greater torments, to whom the punishments of sinners were reported precisely so that they would not sin.

“Now all these things happened to them as a figure; but they were written for our correction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come.” We are the ends of the ages; for these things are known to have been done then, concerning their recompense, so as to be an example to us, who were to be in the faith of Christ in the last age. For they were done for our benefit, so that if, through the terror of these things, we remain in the fear of God, we may receive the glory promised to them; if not, their punishment will be doubled for us, because greater knowledge of the law makes one more guilty.

“Therefore let him who thinks he stands take heed lest he fall.” He says this to those who, presuming on the knowledge by which it is lawful to eat everything, were a stumbling block to the weak brothers; and who, thinking they were making some progress through the teaching of the false apostles, had grown worse, and judged the Apostle, though they themselves were guilty. He enlarges on their pride, then, lest they be tempted through it, as the Jews were tempted and perished.

“Let no temptation seize you except a human one.” And so, by disparaging the Apostle, they seem to tempt the Lord; for then too, when they disparaged Moses and doubted him, they are said to have tempted God. For whatever is not held as proven is tested; therefore, so that this temptation may be uprooted, he warns them with terror. But he exhorts that a human temptation may seize them; for a human temptation is to distrust man because of hope in God, since vain is hope in man; so that in necessity or affliction one does not despair of God by seeking human help, as the Jews also did, who, doubting God, begged for the aid of idols. This is human help, because the gods of the pagans are earth, and human error invented their worship. To suffer for Christ, then, is a human temptation, by which one makes progress with God. “But God is faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted beyond what you are able, but will also make with the temptation a way out, so that you can bear it.” He calls God faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted beyond what you are able, because God promised to give the heavenly kingdom to those who love him; and he must give it, because he is faithful. Therefore he will be present to those afflicted for him, and will not allow so much to be inflicted that they cannot bear it; but he will make either the temptation cease quickly, or, if it is prolonged, give the strength to endure; otherwise he will not give what he promised, because the sufferer would be conquered. For man is subject to weakness, and there would be no one to receive it; but because God, who promised, is faithful, he comes to help, so as to fulfil what he promised. Indeed the Lord wants the days to be shortened so that the elect may be saved and be able to obtain the kingdom of God (Matt 24:22). Yet how is one helped by God if he is allowed to be tempted only as much as he can bear? He is plainly helped, when no more is allowed to be laid on him than he is known to be able to bear; so that one who is known to be unable to endure beyond three days is not left without bread on the fourth day.

“Therefore, dearly beloved, flee from the worship of idols.” He exhorts them even now to abstain from all association with idolatry, so that not only hope but also the mind may be taken away from it, lest by this a temptation against God be born. For no one who frequents an idol's temple hopes for nothing from it; and to hope from it is to doubt God, as Saul too, having abandoned God, who was angry with him because of his sin, turned to idolatry, hoping for something from it (1 Sam 28). This both harmed him in the present and provided avenging Gehenna for the future.

“As wise men, judge for yourselves what I say.” He adds examples so as to persuade more easily; for those whom words do not satisfy, examples usually persuade.

“The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not a sharing of the blood of the Lord? The bread which we break, is it not a sharing of the body of the Lord? Because there is one bread, we many are one body; for we all partake of the one bread and of the one cup.” Since we are one, members of one another, he says we ought to think one thing; so that one faith may have one mind and one work.

“Consider Israel according to the flesh”: that is, learn, you who see God, how carnal things, that is, idolatry, behave. “Are not those who eat the sacrifices sharers in the altar?” For as we, partaking of one bread and one cup, are sharers and partners in the body of the Lord, so those who eat the sacrifices are sharers in the altar of error.

“What then do I say? That what is sacrificed to an image is anything? Not that an image is anything; but what they sacrifice, they sacrifice to demons.” An image is truly nothing, because it is seen to be the likeness of a dead thing; but under the cover of images the devil is worshipped. “I do not want you to become sharers with demons.” He shows that this is not only what is seen in an idol's temple, but that there is a hidden mystery of iniquity, which Satan invented to corrupt faith in the one God. Hence the apostle John too says in his letter: “For this the Son of God came, to destroy the works of the devil” (1 John 3:8).

“You cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of demons; you cannot share in the table of the Lord and the table of demons.” As the Lord also says: “You cannot serve God and mammon” (Matt 6:24); for one who drinks the cup of demons insults the cup of the Lord; and when he shares in the table of demons, he raises a clamour against the table of the Lord, that is, the altar, and crucifies the Lord's body. For Christ was crucified precisely to destroy the works of the devil. One who does the works of the devil, then, opposes Christ.

“Or do we provoke the Lord Jesus to jealousy? Are we stronger than he?” It hardly happens that a lowly person is jealous of a powerful one; for he knows that what could be envied in the other does not befit him; but one envies an equal or nearly equal. Therefore the Apostle said that men cannot be jealous of the Lord Jesus, because they know him to be Lord; if not, the one they are jealous of, lest he be Lord, will not seem to them worthy to be called Lord. For out of jealousy Satan invented idolatry, so that men, denying God the Lord, might serve idols as gods and lords. “All things are lawful for me, but not all things are expedient.” He says all things are lawful according to the law of nature; for all things are clean. For the subject was foods and meat sacrificed to idols. For how can things forbidden and prohibited be called lawful, when here he indicates that even things permitted are sometimes not expedient? As the apostle Peter says: “If this is the case of a man with his wife, it is not expedient to marry” (Matt 19:10).

“All things are lawful for me, but not all things build up.” The sense is the same: it is lawful to eat all things, but what is sacrificed to idols does not build up, because it makes a brother stumble, as was said above; and therefore one must sometimes refrain from lawful things, so as to do good. This is why he refused to accept support from them, though it was lawful for him, knowing that it was not expedient.

“Let no one seek his own, but what is another's.” It is true that when someone reclines in an idol's temple he satisfies his own will and puts a stumbling block before a brother of weak conscience. Therefore one must hasten, for the love of our Lord Jesus Christ, to prefer what is necessary for our neighbour's salvation to what is necessary for our own will; as the same Apostle, the vessel of election and spiritual physician, says: “not seeking what is useful to me, but what is useful to many” (1 Cor 10:33).

“Eat whatever is sold in the meat market, asking nothing for conscience' sake; for the earth is the Lord's and its fullness.” To show that all things are clean, he confirmed it by the example of the twenty-third Psalm; for what is the Lord's cannot be unclean. And since above he said of foods, “All things are lawful”, he at once went on: “Eat whatever is sold in the meat market, asking nothing for conscience' sake.” He added this so that the conscience might be free; for though something may be polluted by an accident, that is, by an offering to an idol, yet when the buyer does not know this, he suffers no scruple, and is clean before God.

“If any of the unbelievers invites you to dinner and you go, eat whatever is set before you, asking nothing.” That is, eat simply what is set before you, not asking where it comes from.

“But if anyone says, 'This is sacrificial', do not eat, for the sake of the one who pointed it out, and for conscience' sake. Conscience, I say, not your own, but the other's.” He speaks this to the perfect, who, despising idolatry, can hold that eating of a sacrifice is nothing, being sure that what is eaten under the name of God the Creator cannot pollute; but because another, who serves idols, will boast that you eat of sacrifices as if you venerated idols, therefore it ought not to be eaten. For that man will rejoice in his own conscience, because he sees you gladly seeking what has been sacrificed to idols. “For why is my freedom judged by another's conscience?” He says this because, since his conscience is free from devotion to an idol, what need is there for it to be thought that he eats things sacrificed to idols for the sake of veneration? For he is judged no different from one who worships idols, when he does not shrink from what has been offered to an image.

“If, then, I am a sharer in grace, why am I blasphemed for that for which I give thanks?” That is, if I share in the grace of God, because I eat in his name, what need is there for anyone to think that I am devoted to an idol, since I do not shrink from what has been offered to the idol? That is, I am blasphemed. So he both blasphemes me and rejoices in his idol's temple; while he thinks me a sharer, he has occasion to remain in error, and a bad example is given to the brothers. For if it is commanded in the law that groves and altars and pillars and the idols themselves be broken, see whether it is not a sin not only not to do these things but even to take part in such banquets; therefore it is not expedient to eat of things sacrificed.

“Whether, then, you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God.” By what follows he declared that to eat in an idol's temple, with whatever conscience, is hostile to God; for these things are dedicated to the devil to the reproach of the one God. For to eat and drink and do anything to the glory of God is this: that a meal is celebrated with moderation under the invocation of the Creator; for something is done to the glory of God when God is praised in the acts and conduct of a Christian, or when the procreation of children is hoped for from God.

“Be without offence to Jews and Greeks and to the church of God.” He teaches that our conduct must be so tempered that no one suffers a stumbling block in it. Offence is given to the Jews when they see that a Christian, who says he accepts the law and the prophets, does not shrink from idols, which they abhor. But to the Greeks, that is, the gentiles, this is the offence, if in what they are they are not only not rebuked but even become more eager, when their offerings to idols are not avoided. And a stumbling block arises for the church of God when it sees some of its number cleaving to things hostile to God.

“As I also please all in all things, not seeking what is useful to me, but what is useful to many, so that they may be saved.” To please all in all things is to act without causing anyone to stumble, for the advance of their benefit, so that it may be useful both to them and to him.

“Be imitators of me, as I also am of Christ.” What he says is humane: that we should imitate him who was granted to us by God as a teacher. For if he is an imitator of God, why should we not be of a man? For as God the Father sent Christ as the teacher and author of life, so Christ also sent the apostles to us as teachers, so that we might be their imitators, since we cannot be his. For thus the Lord says to the Father: “As you sent me into this world, so I also have sent them into this world” (John 17:18). And since they were worthy imitators of him, he added: “And for them I sanctify myself” (John 17:19).

“Now I praise you, brothers, that you remember me in all things, and hold my traditions as I hand them on everywhere.” After rebuking their morals and conduct, he now wants to correct their traditions. Therefore he does not affirm this, but is angry with them; because, though he was their apostle, they were forgetful of his traditions, nor did they follow from the tradition of other churches what they had not yet learned; and therefore he hands it on to them as if anew, saying:

“I want you to know that the head of every man is Christ.” He referred it to authority; for man is indeed from God, but through Christ. “And the head of the woman is the man.” For although the woman too is through Christ, yet she was made from the man, and therefore is subject to the man. “And the head of Christ is God.” It is fitting that the Father be called the head of the Son, as his begetter. Yet Christ is head of the man in one way, the man of the woman in another, and God is head of Christ in another. God is head of Christ because he was begotten of him or from him. The man is head of the woman because she was formed from his rib by God's power (Gen 2:21). Christ is head of the man because through him he was created when he did not exist. One expression, then, has different meanings, because both persons and substances differ.

“Every man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonours his head.” By 'praying' he means making petition; by 'prophesying', proclaiming after the prayer, with the words of the creed, that the Lord will come.

“But every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered disgraces her head; for it is one and the same as if she were shaven. For if a woman is not veiled, let her be shorn; but if it is shameful for a woman to be shorn or shaven, let her veil her head. For a man ought not to veil his head, since he is the image and glory of God.” Although man and woman are of one substance, yet because the man is head of the woman, he is presented as to be preferred, so that he is greater by cause and reason, not by substance. The woman, then, is inferior to the man, for she is a portion of him; for the man is the origin of the woman, since she is from him; and therefore the woman is seen to be bound to the man, so as to be subject to his authority. He says the honour and dignity of the man prevent him from veiling his head; for it is unfitting that the image of God be concealed; it ought not to be hidden, for the glory of God is seen in the man. “But the woman is the glory of the man.” There is a great difference between the glory of God and the glory of man; for man was made in the image of God, not woman. Now this image of God is in man because one God made one man; so that, just as all things are from one God, so all men might be from one man; so that the one visible man might have on earth the image of the one invisible God, so that the one God might be seen in one man to preserve the authority of the one principle, to the confusion of the devil, who, neglecting the one God, wished to usurp dominion and divinity for himself. This the prophet Ezekiel signifies (Ezek 28:2), and the same Apostle, for he says: “so that he sits in the temple of God, showing himself as if he were God” (2 Thess 2:4).

“For man is not from woman, but woman from man; for man was not created for the woman, but woman for the man. Therefore the woman ought to have power upon her head, also because of the angels.” By 'power' he signified the veil; by 'angels' he means bishops, as is taught in the Apocalypse of John (Rev 2:1 and following). And because they are certainly men, they are reproved for not correcting the people, and what is right in them is praised. The woman, then, ought to veil her head because she is not the image of God, but so as to show that she is subject. And because transgression began through her, she ought to have this sign; so that in church, out of reverence for the bishop, she does not have her head free but covered with a veil; nor does she have the power to speak, because the bishop represents the person of Christ. As before a judge, then, so before the bishop, since he is the Lord's vicar, she ought to appear subject because of the origin of guilt.

“Nevertheless, neither is woman without man nor man without woman in the Lord.” He says 'in the Lord' because God made both from one and one; for they are one flesh and one body in the Lord, that is, according to the Lord who created them. Indeed, those who do not believe that woman was taken from man believe in the origin of mankind without the Lord, or not according to the Lord.

“For as woman is from man, so also man is through woman.” He confirmed what he said, that both are one in nature and that the man is the origin of the woman, as we read in Genesis was done by the Lord the Creator (Gen 2:22). “But all things are from God.” After setting out each point step by step, so as to subject all things to God, keeping the one principle, he says: “But all things are from God”; so that neither the woman should be saddened because of her subjection, nor the man be proud as though exalted.

“Judge for yourselves: is it fitting for a woman to pray to God unveiled?” This is why above he was angry with them by irony, saying: “I praise you that you remember all my things, and hold my traditions as I hand them on everywhere” (11:2). For since the rule of the tradition was that women should be veiled in church, they on the contrary allowed them to be unveiled in church. And therefore he now tries to persuade them of the truth not by the authority of the tradition, which they had neglected, but by nature itself, saying:

“Does not nature itself teach you that if a man has long hair it is a disgrace to him?” He said this according to the law; for it forbids a man to have long hair. “But if a woman has long hair it is a glory to her, since her hair has been given her for a covering.” He wants this to be naturally honourable and almost decreed, so that a woman may give satisfaction by being veiled and give thanks to God. Her hair, then, is an indication of the veil, so that will may be added to nature. Indeed no woman, even unveiled, approaches the authorities.

“But if anyone seems to be contentious, we have no such custom, nor does the church of God.” After giving his reasons, so as to overcome the contentious he interposes authority; because neither did Judaism have this, which is why he says “neither we nor the church of God”, meaning that neither Moses nor the Saviour handed it down so. “But in giving this command I do not praise you, because you come together not for the better but for the worse.” As he corrects their conduct point by point by rebuke, so too their traditions, certainly not praising but blaming them.

“For first.” By saying “first” he shows the kind of sin from which the errors he rebukes arose; for where there is dissension, nothing is right. “When you come together in church, I hear that there are dissensions, and in part I believe it. For there must also be heresies, so that those who are approved may become manifest among you.” Knowing that some were corrupt in mind through the devil's cunning, he says: “There must be heresies.” He certainly did not wish or desire it; but he said it because he knew it would be, as the Lord also says: “Offences must come” (Matt 18:7), and: “The Son of Man must suffer” (Luke 9:22), knowing beforehand that Judas would be the betrayer. But when he says “so that those who are approved may become manifest among you”, he means those who, persevering in the tradition received, were an example of the proving of gospel discipline, to the condemnation of the rest. These are those whom he indicates at the head of the letter, since they said: “But we are Christ's”, while others said: “I am of Paul, I of Apollos” (1 Cor 1:12).

“When you come together, then, it is no longer to eat the Lord's supper. For each of you takes his own supper first in eating; and one is hungry, and another is drunk. Do you not have houses to eat and drink in? Or do you despise the church of God and shame those who have nothing?” He marks those who came together in church in such a way that, offering their gifts, when the presbyters arrived (for rulers had not yet been appointed for the churches in every place), those who had offered claimed it all for themselves, for the sake of schism. For the false apostles had sown dissensions among them, so that they were jealous over their offerings; whereas the offerings of all were blessed with one and the same prayer; so that those who, as usually happens, had not offered, or had nothing to offer, were put to shame, taking no part; and they did it so quickly that latecomers found nothing to eat. And therefore, he says, if you come together in such a way that each takes his own, this should be done at home, not in church, where people come together for unity and the mystery, not for dissension and the belly. For the gift offered should be that of the whole people, because all are signified in one bread. For by the fact that we are one, we must all take from one bread. “What shall I say to you? Shall I praise you? In this I do not praise you.” It is plain: the error having been detected and rebuked, so that they might correct themselves for the rest, and know that this is true which they themselves had learned long ago at the beginning, he repeats the form of what was given by the Saviour in such a matter, saying:

“For I received from the Lord what I also handed on to you, that the Lord Jesus, on the night in which he was betrayed, took bread, and giving thanks, broke it and said: Take and eat; this is my body, which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of me. In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying: This cup is the new covenant in my blood; do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.” He shows them that the mystery of the Eucharist, celebrated during a supper, is not a supper; for it is a spiritual medicine which, tasted with reverence, purifies the one devoted to it. For it is the memorial of our redemption; so that, mindful of the Redeemer, we may deserve to obtain greater things from him.

“For as often as you eat this bread and drink of the cup, you will proclaim the Lord's death until he comes.” For since we have been freed by the Lord's death, mindful of this, in eating and drinking the flesh and blood which were offered for us, we signify that we have obtained in them the new covenant, which is the new law, which hands over to the heavenly kingdom the one who obeys it. For Moses too, having taken the blood of a calf in a bowl, sprinkled the children of Israel, saying: “This is the covenant which God has appointed for you” (Exod 24:8). This was a figure of the covenant which the Lord called new through the prophets, so that that which Moses handed on is the old. The covenant, then, was established by blood, because blood is the witness of the divine benefit. As a type of this we receive the mystical cup of the blood for the protection of our body and soul; for the Lord's blood redeemed our blood, that is, made the whole man safe. For the Saviour's flesh was offered for the salvation of the body, and his blood was shed for our soul, as had been prefigured before by Moses; for he says thus: “Flesh is offered for your body, but blood for the soul” (Lev 17:11); and therefore blood is not to be eaten. If, then, among the ancients there was an image of the truth which has now appeared and been made manifest at the Saviour's coming, how does the old seem contrary to the new to the heretics, since they bear witness to each other?

“Therefore whoever eats this bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in a manner unworthy of the Lord will be guilty of the body and blood of the Lord.” He says that one is unworthy of the Lord who celebrates the mystery otherwise than it was handed on by him. For one who presumes otherwise than was given by the author cannot be devout. And therefore he warns that the mind of one approaching the Lord's Eucharist should be devout, according to the order handed down; since there will be a judgment, in which each will give account, on the day of the Lord Jesus Christ, of how he approaches; for those who approach without the discipline of the tradition and of conduct are guilty of the body and blood of the Lord. What is it to be guilty, if not to pay the penalty for the Lord's death? For he was killed for those who bring his benefit to nothing. “But let a man examine himself, and so eat of that bread and drink of the cup. For whoever eats and drinks unworthily eats and drinks judgment to himself, not discerning the body of the Lord.” He teaches that one must approach communion with a devout mind and with fear, so that the mind may know that it owes reverence to him whose body it approaches to receive. For he ought to judge this within himself: that it is the Lord whose blood he drinks in the mystery, which is the witness of God's benefit. If we receive it with discipline, we will not be unworthy of the body and blood of the Lord; for we will be seen to give thanks to the Redeemer.

“That is why many among you are weak and sick, and many sleep.” To prove that there will truly be an examination of those who receive the Lord's body, he already shows here an image of the judgment on those who had received the Lord's body thoughtlessly, since they were seized by fevers and illnesses, and many died; so that the rest might learn from them, and, frightened by the example of a few, might amend, knowing that to receive the Lord's body carelessly does not go unpunished; and that one whose punishment has been put off here will be dealt with more severely, because he scorned the example.

“But if we judged ourselves, we would not be judged. But when we are judged, we are rebuked by the Lord, so that we may not be condemned with this world.” He says this because if we ourselves corrected our errors, we would not be judged by the Lord. And because we are rebuked, still it is for our good, so that we may be amended by fear itself. For in a few lies the correction of all. “So that we may not be condemned with this world”, that is, with unbelievers; for one who approaches the Lord's table thoughtlessly differs in nothing from an unbeliever.

“So, brothers, when you come together to eat, wait for one another. If anyone is hungry, let him eat at home.” He says to wait for one another so that the offering of many may be celebrated together and served to all; and if anyone is impatient, let him feed on earthly bread at home. “So that you may not come together for judgment”: that is, lest you perform the mystery blameworthily and with offence. “The rest I will set in order when I come.” He shows that the chief thing must be dealt with first in the order of salvation, and he has set out first how both sexes are to come together in church; in which matters, if there is error, it is no light sin. But the rest, which pertains to the building up of the church, he promised to set in order by his presence.

“Now concerning spiritual things, brothers, I do not want you to be ignorant. You know that when you were gentiles you went to the form of images, as you were led.” Being about to hand on spiritual things to them, he recalls the example of their former way of life; that just as they were the form of the images when they worshipped idols, and were led by the will of the demons as guide, so too, worshipping God, they should be the form of the Lord's law, walking as pleases the Lord. For the form of each law ought to be seen in the profession and conduct of its worshipper; for he is the form and image of God's law in whose faith and conduct the truth of the gospel shines.

“Therefore I make known to you that no one speaking in the Spirit of God says 'Anathema to Jesus'; and no one can say 'Lord Jesus' except in the Holy Spirit.” Since, ignorant of the meaning of spiritual gifts, they gave the glory for each charism to men rather than to God, not understanding that this gift is ministered by the Holy Spirit; and since one who calls Jesus Lord does not say it without the Holy Spirit (for he has grace in this very fact of his faith, for the glory of Christ's name; for it is not without God's gift that one says Jesus is Lord), he therefore shows them that in all things the praise and the grace are God's; for just as the image of the idols is in its ministers, having its order through each rank, yet the whole is man's, so too in the Lord's law the ranks of charisms belong to the offices of the church, not granted at all for human merits, but as members belonging to the building up of the church, which have glory through themselves and in themselves, as is also the case in human offices. For there are 'schools' (corps of officials) which give dignity to those placed in them; so that the honour of the post makes a man glorious, not his own merit. He says, then: “No one speaking in the Spirit of God says 'Anathema to Jesus'.” For the voice that says 'Anathema to Jesus' is uttered by human error; for whatever is false is from man. “And no one can say 'Lord Jesus' except in the Holy Spirit.” For the very saying by which the Lord Jesus is signified did not pour forth from men's flattery, as idols too are called gods, but from the truth of the Holy Spirit; for whatever true thing is said by anyone at all is said by the Holy Spirit. So that they might not think, then, that the Christian rule depends on human favour, and for this reason refuse to let themselves be rebuked, as is the case with images (for man invented that something which is not God should be called God, and so the priests are subject to them), he shows them that there is no human benefit in it when Jesus is called Lord, but rather the gift of God, who deigned to declare his mystery to men. For the very profession obtains forgiveness of sins, as the dedication of idols increases them. He teaches them, then, that they do not confer a benefit on religion by saying 'Lord Jesus', but receive one; lest, after the manner of idols, they think that the grace in the Lord's law is men's, as when one who is not God is called God. Indeed, not understanding that the gift of God is in faith, each had chosen men for himself to follow, saying: “I am of Paul, I of Apollos” (1 Cor 1:12). He humbles their pride, then, so that they might let themselves be rebuked, as I said.

“Now there are divisions of graces.” He does not want this ascribed to human merits but to the grace of God, for the honour of his name; for just as one who says 'Lord Jesus' says it in the Holy Spirit, whatever sort of person he is, so too one placed in a rank of church office has grace, whatever sort of person he is: certainly not his own, but that of the order, through the working of the Holy Spirit. Hence at the beginning he says: “Neither he who plants is anything, nor he who waters, but God who gives the growth” (1 Cor 3:7).

“But the same Spirit. And there are divisions of ministries.” He says that different gifts are bestowed through the same Spirit. “But the same Lord. And there are divisions of operations.” Now he joins Christ to the Holy Spirit. “But the same God, who works all things in all.” So far is he from thinking this should be given to men, as though it were their own, that he ascribes it to God alone; so as to call even the gift of the Holy Spirit and the grace of the Lord Jesus the work of the one God; lest grace and gift be divided because of the persons of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit; but that one work of the undivided unity and nature of the three may be understood, so as to bring all glory and divinity back to one. The divisions of graces, however, are assigned to the offices of the church, not to human merits. For if the Holy Spirit is the same as the Lord, and the Lord the same as God, the three are also one God; for since the glory and power and nature of the Holy Spirit are God's, and the Lord Jesus is in nature the same as God is, certainly the Holy Spirit and the Lord Jesus and the Father are one God. For each singly is one God, and the three are one God. Indeed, when one works, the three are said to work; so that the mystery of the Trinity is enclosed in the united nature and power of God, though it is immeasurable.

“But to each is given the manifestation of the Spirit for benefit.” That is, he receives a gift so that, governing his life by divine reins, he may be useful both to himself and to others, while he shows the example of good conduct.

“For to one is given through the Spirit the word of wisdom.” That is, prudence is given him not from books but by the flashing fire of the Holy Spirit, so that he may have an enlightened heart and be prudent to discern what is to be avoided and what followed. “To another the word of knowledge according to the same Spirit”: that is, so that he may have knowledge of divine things. “To another the grace of healings in the one Spirit”: that is, so that he may give a remedy to the infirm or the sick.

“To another faith in the same Spirit.” He says this so that, shame having been suppressed, he may receive the ability to profess and defend the faith. “To another the working of powers.” He signifies that power is given for casting out demons or doing signs. “To another prophecy”: that is, so that, filled with the Holy Spirit, he may speak of things to come. “To another the discerning of spirits.” He says this so that he may understand and judge what is said, whether it is of the Holy Spirit or of a worldly spirit. “To another kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of words.” To interpret is faithfully to interpret, by God's gift, the words of those who speak in tongues or in letters. “But all these things the one and the same Spirit works, dividing to each as he wills.” What he said above of the three persons he now professes to be done by the one Holy Spirit; so that, since they are of one nature and power, what one works the three work; yet there is one God, whose grace is divided to each as he wills, not according to men's merits, but rather for the building up of his church; so that all the things that the world wishes to imitate but does not achieve, because it is carnal, may be seen in the church, which is the house of God, granted to individuals' offices by the gift and teaching of the Holy Spirit, as proof of the truth in those who are contemptible to the world.

“For as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so also is Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Greeks, whether slaves or free; and we all drank one Spirit.” By these words he teaches that no one's person is to be scorned as despised, nor anyone's preferred as though perfect; nor is the glory owed to God alone to be given to men, since in all the one and same God is glorious; seeing that we all have one baptism and one and the same Holy Spirit. This is for the reason mentioned above, because they gloried in some men and spurned others as contemptible.

“For the body too is not one member but many.” By saying this he shows that unity has varieties of offices, and that this diversity does not clash in the unity of power; since the unity of the body consists not in singleness but in many members, so that they render to one another what they owe.

“If the foot says, 'Because I am not a hand, I am not of the body', is it therefore not of the body?” That is, one who seems weak among the brothers cannot be denied to be of the body because he is not powerful.

“If the ear says, 'Because I am not an eye, I am not of the body', is it therefore not of the body?” He says that one who is a little lower ought not to be thought unnecessary to the body because he is not among the first.

“If the whole body were an eye, where would the hearing be? If the whole were hearing, where would the smelling be?” That is, if all were of one office and work, how would the remaining needs of the body be fulfilled, since it is agreed that many offices are needed to govern the body?

“But now God has placed the members, each one of them in the body, as he willed.” He says that God's will, because it is provident and rational, fitted the members to the body, so that nothing is lacking to the body, but it is made perfect by many members.

“But if all were one member, where would the body be?” It is plain that if all were of one dignity, they would not be called members, nor a body; and therefore they are governed together by the various offices of the members; for all could not be one member. They are many because they differ from one another in dignity.

“But now there are many members, but one body.” He says this because the many members, since they need one another, do not clash in the unity of nature, though they are different; because this diversity runs together into one, so that the usefulness of the body is fulfilled; as also the things of which the world itself consists, though different not only in functions but also in natures, nevertheless serve the perfection of the one world, and from all these a certain temperate balance is born in the fruits, which serve human use.

“But the eye cannot say to the hand, 'I do not need your work'.” That is, the more powerful cannot say to the inferior, 'I have no need of you'; for the eye indeed sees, but it is the hands that work. “Or again the head to the feet, 'You are not necessary to me'”: that is, one greater in rank and dignity cannot be without one who is lowly; for there is something the lowly can do which the lofty cannot, just as iron can do what gold cannot; and therefore the feet do honour to the head.

“But much more, the members of the body which seem to be weaker are more necessary.” It is plain that, however lofty someone may be in dignity, if the subordinate is lacking who makes him glorious by his services, the dignity itself will be contemptible; for it is service by which dignity subsists. It is as if an emperor lacked an army. However great the emperor, then, he still needs an army; for it is a member of his body, having before itself tribunes, counts and masters. Lower than all these are the soldiers, and they are more necessary, like the members of the body which, though they seem lower, are more useful; for without the eyes the hand works, and the foot by walking seeks food.

“And those members of the body which we think less honourable, we surround with more abundant honour.” The sense is similar: those who are thought to be without dignity, we find something in them to praise, just as in the humbler members there is something that pleases us more than what we find in the others. For of what honour are the hands worthy, when we hold what we wish! Or the feet, with which we go where we wish! Therefore we too add honour to them, for example to the feet; which, because they are lowly and without dignity, we adorn with shoes. “And our unseemly parts have more abundant honour.” It is plain that our private parts, which seem shameful, cover themselves with decency, avoiding public view, so as not to cause horror by irreverence. In the same way certain of the brothers, though unseemly in poverty and dress, are yet not without grace, through which they are members of our body; for they are accustomed to go about girt in a coarse little garment, barefoot. Though they seem contemptible, then, they are rather an honour, because they usually have a cleaner life. For what seems despised to men is usually judged beautiful by God.

“But our seemly parts need nothing.” It is plain that the head does not need, nor the face, nor the hands, anything to be added to them to adorn them; so too with brothers in whom zeal for learning and honourable conduct flourish, there is nothing that we add; for the honour due is paid to them. But for the despised or lowly, exhortation is necessary, by which some honour may be added to them, so that they may become useful; if not, through that very contempt they will be more careless about themselves, though progress is needed more in them.

“But God has tempered the body, giving more abundant honour to the part that lacked it, so that there may be no schism in the body, but the members may be concerned for one another.” He says that the human body was so tempered by God that all its members are necessary; and therefore they are concerned for one another, because one cannot exist without the other; and what is thought lower is more necessary; as has also been explained or argued about the brothers, that no one ought to be despised as useless.

“And if one member suffers, all the members suffer with it.” This is not doubtful of the members of the fleshly body; for if the eye, or foot, or hand is seized by some illness of infirmity, the whole body grieves with it; so too he teaches us to grieve with the brothers if anything of this kind, or any necessity, arises. “Or if one member is glorified, all the members rejoice with it.” It is plain that the head and the other members are glad if the feet are well cared for or healthy. So we too ought to become cheerful if we see some brother a worshipper of God and enriched with honourable conduct, that is, sound in counsel.

“But you are the body of Christ, and members from a member.” He shows plainly that he has dealt with our case by the analogy of the fleshly members; for we cannot all do the same things, but each has grace granted according to the quality of his faith.

“And God has placed some in the church, first apostles.” He placed the apostles, then, as the head in the church, who are Christ's ambassadors, as the same Apostle says: “for whom we act as ambassadors” (2 Cor 5:20). These are the bishops, as the apostle Peter confirms, saying among other things of Judas: “And let another take his bishopric” (Acts 1:20). “Second, prophets.” Let us understand prophets in two ways: both those who foretell things to come and those who reveal the Scriptures; although the apostles too are prophets, because the first rank has all those below it under it. Indeed the most wicked Caiaphas prophesied because he was high priest (John 11:51), certainly by reason of his order, not his own merit. Yet specially there were prophets who were both interpreters of the Scriptures and foretellers of the future, as was Agabus, who prophesied to this Apostle the afflictions and chains that would come at Jerusalem (Acts 21:11), and foretold the famine which happened under Claudius (Acts 11:28). So, though the apostle is better, he sometimes needs prophets. And since all things are from the one God the Father, he decreed that single bishops should preside over single churches. “Third, teachers.” He calls teachers those who in the church instructed boys in letters and in learning readings by heart, after the manner of the synagogue; for their tradition has passed over to us. In fourth place he says: “Then powers, then the grace of healings”; for someone can not be a bishop and yet have in himself the gift of the power of healings. “Helps, governings”: so that he may be watchful in understanding in divine things; yet in such a way that in some things he is not granted to fulfil, he takes from another what he does not have; for everything cannot be granted to one. There are also governors, who by spiritual reins are an example to men. “Kinds of tongues”: so that it is a gift of God to know many languages. “Interpretation of words”: so that the grace of God imparts this to someone, that he has skill in interpreting tongues.

“Are all apostles?” It is true, for in the church there is one bishop. “Are all prophets?” There is no doubt that prophecy is not granted to all. “Are all teachers?” He is a teacher who is granted to instruct others.

“Are all powers?” He can have power to whom God grants to cast out demons. “Do all have the grace of healings?” How can it be that all have gifts of healings? “Do all speak in tongues?” Certainly not, except one who receives the gift in this matter. “Do all interpret?” He can interpret words to whom God grants it. These are to be fitted into the sense mentioned above. For he has explained, giving his reasons, that all have different graces, and that the whole is not granted to anyone, by the example of the members. For by the example of the fleshly body he suggests the spiritual body; and therefore in all things God is to be blessed and gloried in, in his name whose grace it is. This principle we also find in natural things; for though gold is better than silver, silver is more in use; and though bronze is necessary, iron is needed more; for almost nothing is done without iron, though it is lower.

“Strive for the better gifts.” This he settles shortly in what follows. “And yet I show you a still more excellent way.” Step by step he advances them to more useful things, showing them that the grace of every gift mentioned above, which is seen in men, whether of speaking or healing or prophesying, does not pertain to a man's merit, but to the honour of God. And therefore now he says he is showing them a plainer way, by which one goes to heaven, which lays up merit with God. For because the things mentioned above do not always pertain to merit, the Saviour says: “Many will say to me on that day”, that is, of judgment, “Lord, Lord, did we not prophesy in your name, and cast out demons in your name, and do many mighty works?” (Matt 7:22). And because this does not pertain to merit, but they are offices of the church, to the confusion of the gentiles and for the attestation of God's honour, the Lord says to them: “Depart from me; I do not know you, workers of iniquity” (Matt 7:23). For, secure because God's working was seen in them, they were careless about themselves; for to the seventy-two disciples, rejoicing because the demons were subject to them, the Saviour says: “Do not rejoice in this, that the demons are subject to you; but rejoice in this, that your names are written in heaven” (Luke 10:20). Why, unless because they are subject to the name of God, not by a man's merit? And why does it not happen now that men have the grace of God in this way? At the beginning it had to happen, so that the foundations of faith might receive firmness; but now there is no need, because people bring people to faith, when their good works and simple preaching are seen.

“If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, but do not have love, I have become like sounding bronze or a tinkling cymbal.” It certainly seems a great grace to speak in various tongues; but it is something more if one could know even the tongue of angels, that is, if one could have spiritual knowledge of angelic movement. But he shows in what follows that this is not to be ascribed to merit but to God's glory, saying that it is like sounding bronze or a tinkling cymbal. For as bronze resounds at the impulse of another and the cymbal tinkles, so too this one who speaks in tongues has the working and movement of the Holy Spirit so as to be able to speak, as the Saviour also says in another place: “For it is not you who speak, but the Spirit of your Father who speaks in you” (Matt 10:20). For even the ass spoke with a human tongue to Balaam son of Beor, to bring home God's majesty (Num 22:28); and infant children burst forth in God's praise to the confusion of the Jews (Matt 21:16). And the Saviour showed that not only these but even stones could cry out to the condemnation of the faithless and the glory of God (Luke 19:40). And at the very beginnings, to commend the faith, those who were baptized spoke in tongues (Acts 10:46).

“And if I have prophecy, and know all mysteries and all knowledge, but do not have love, it profits me nothing.” Truly it profits nothing; for one prophesies for God's glory, as the prophet David says: “Not to us, Lord, not to us, but to your name give glory” (Ps 113:1). For even Balaam prophesied (Num 23:8 and following), though he was not a prophet but a soothsayer; and Caiaphas prophesied (John 11:51), not by merit but by the dignity of the priestly order; and Saul prophesied (1 Sam 19:23), though he had already been filled with an evil spirit because of disobedience; but this was for God's cause, so that he might not be able to seize David, whom he also wished to kill. “And if I know all mysteries”: for it profited Judas nothing to have been with the apostles and to have learned the mysteries, when, as an enemy of love, he betrayed the Saviour. And the prophet Ezekiel shows that the devil knew heavenly mysteries, when with a voice of rebuke he testifies that he had been in God's paradise and had precious stones (Ezek 28:13 and following), which stones the same Apostle signified as the mysteries of divine teaching (1 Cor 3:12); and it profited him nothing, because, forgetful of love, he leapt into pride. “And if I have all knowledge.” Knowledge profits me nothing if there is no love. Indeed it profited the scribes and Pharisees nothing, as the Saviour says: “You have the key of knowledge, and neither do you enter, nor allow others to enter” (Luke 11:52); for, corrupting love through envy, they brought its knowledge to nothing. For Tertullian and Novatian too were of no small knowledge; but because through rivalry they lost the bonds of love, they turned to schism and created heresies to their own ruin. “And if I have all faith, so as to move mountains.” To do mighty works or cast out demons through faith is God's power and glory; nor does this advance one's merit unless one is zealous for good conduct, as I mentioned above.

“And if I give away all my substance.” It is plain that if all one's substance is spent, it profits nothing if love is neglected; for love is the head of religion, and whoever does not have the head does not have life. “And if I hand over my body to be burned, it profits me nothing.” Without love it profits nothing, because love is the foundation of religion. Whatever is done without love, then, is perishable.

“Love is magnanimous, love is pleasant. Love does not envy, is not puffed up, does not act wrongly, is not ambitious, does not seek what is its own, is not irritated, does not think evil, does not rejoice in iniquity but rejoices with the truth; it bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Love never falls.” He has taught such great praises of love that he might deservedly seem to set it before the rest, and that those who devote themselves to other commandments while not obeying this one labour in vain. Hence the apostle John says: “God is love” (1 John 4:8); so that one who does not have love may know that he does not have God; hence the same apostle Paul also says in another letter: “But God, who is rich in mercy, because of his great love has had mercy on us” (Eph 2:4). One who does not have love, then, is ungrateful for the mercy of God, because he does not love that by which he was saved. So that they might accordingly learn that those who set food above brotherly love sinned gravely. For this is what both profits in the present and remains forever with God. “Whether prophecies will be done away, or tongues will cease, or knowledge will be done away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part; but when that which is perfect has come, the things that are in part will be done away.” He says that all the gifts of the charisms will be done away, because they cannot grasp as much as the truth itself contains. Nor can we either take in or tell the fullness of the truth. For how can it be that a human tongue should encompass all that is God's? Therefore our imperfection will be destroyed, not that what is true will be done away; but it will be destroyed when what is lacking is added to the imperfect. For the destruction of imperfection is when what is imperfect is filled up into the true.

“When I was a little child, I spoke like a little child, I thought like a little child, I reasoned like a little child; but when I became a man, I destroyed the things of the little child.” He says this because the saints, leaving this world, must find more than they now think, as the apostle John said of the Saviour: “Then we shall see him as he is” (1 John 3:2). In this life, then, we are little children compared with the future life; for as this life is imperfect, so too is knowledge. “Now we see through a mirror in an enigma, but then face to face.” It is plain that now images are seen through faith, then the realities themselves. “Now I know in part; then I shall know as I also am known”: that is, I shall see what has been promised as I am seen; that is, I shall be present to the Lord, where Christ is.

“But now faith, hope, love remain, these three; but the greatest of these is love.” Love is rightly the greater; for love provided that faith should be preached and that there should be hope of the future life, as I mentioned above. Hence the apostle John too says: “By this we know his love, that he laid down his life for us” (1 John 3:16). Rightly, then, love is greater, through which the human race has been re-formed.

“Pursue love, strive for spiritual gifts, but rather that you may prophesy.” After love he exhorts them to have zeal for prophesying above all; for although the spiritual ranks he enumerates are great, yet this one is better, which serves the benefit of the church, so that all may learn the meaning of the divine law. For in what one has set his mind on, in that very thing he receives a gift, as Solomon says: “To know the law is the mark of the best mind” (Prov 9:10); for knowledge supported by love is not puffed up, but is gentle, serving the benefit of all. “For one who speaks in a tongue does not speak to men but to God; for no one hears, but in the spirit he speaks mysteries.” This is what he says: one who speaks in an unknown tongue speaks to God, because he knows all things; but men do not know it, and therefore there is no benefit from this matter. “But in the spirit he speaks mysteries”, not with understanding, because he does not know what he is saying.

“For one who prophesies speaks to men for building up and exhortation and consolation.” For one is built up when he learns the solution of questions. Exhortation happens to him so that he comes to desire to prophesy; and he is consoled because he sees the disregard of discipline in hope. For knowledge of the law strengthens minds and calls them to advance toward a better hope.

“One who speaks in a tongue builds up himself; but one who prophesies builds up the church.” For by the fact that perhaps he alone knows what he says, he builds up himself alone; but one who prophesies builds up the whole people, since what he says is understood by all. He calls prophets the interpreters of the Scriptures; for as a prophet foretells future things which are not known, so this one too, when he makes plain the meaning of the Scriptures which is hidden from many, is said to prophesy. “Now I want you all to speak in tongues, but rather that you prophesy.” He could not forbid speaking in tongues, having said above that this gift is the Holy Spirit's; but therefore one should have more zeal for prophesying, because it is more useful. “For greater is one who prophesies than one who speaks in a tongue, unless he interprets.” For if he can interpret, he will not be less, because he builds up the church; for this is greater, which benefits all. For he speaks in tongues by God's gift who also interprets, like those twelve in the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 2:4).

“But now, brothers, if I come to you speaking in tongues, how shall I benefit you unless I speak to you either in revelation or in knowledge or in prophecy or in teaching?” All these mean one thing; for no one can teach unless he is understood.

“Yet things without life that give a sound, whether flute or harp, if they do not give a distinction of sounds, how will what is piped or played on the harp be known? For if the trumpet gives an uncertain sound, who will prepare himself for battle?” Since examples persuade more easily than words, he commends by examples, through which they may easily grasp that those who cannot interpret ought not to speak in tongues in church. For why should someone speak whom no one understands?

“So also you, unless you give a meaningful word through the tongue, how will what you say be known? For you will be speaking into the air”; that is, accomplishing nothing. “For there are, say, many kinds of tongues in this world, and nothing is without voice.” There are indeed many kinds of tongues, he says, but they have their own meanings for their sounds, so that they may be understood.

“If, then, I do not know the force of the voice, I shall be a barbarian to the one to whom I speak, and the one who speaks will be a barbarian to me.” He certainly does not advise striving for this, that they should seem barbarians to one another through an unknown tongue; but since it is a matter of concord, one must strive for this: that through unanimity of understanding they may glory in a common joy.

“So also you, since you are zealous for spirits, seek for the building up of the church that you may prophesy.” Because it is profitable to explain the Scriptures (for the mind is stirred and rejoices when it grasps something of the Scriptures; and the more eager it becomes in this part, the more it abandons vices), he therefore advises that zeal be applied to this part.

“Therefore let one who speaks in a tongue pray that he may interpret.” He advises that one who desires to speak in tongues ought to pray to receive the gift of interpreting, so that his zeal may benefit the others.

“For if I pray in a tongue, my spirit prays, but my mind is without fruit.” It is plain that our mind is ignorant if the tongue speaks a language it does not know, as Latin people are accustomed to sing in Greek, delighted by the sound of the words, yet not knowing what they say. But the Spirit, who is given in baptism, knows what the soul prays when the tongue speaks or pleads in a language unknown to itself; but the mind, which is the soul, is without fruit. For what fruit can one have who does not know what he is saying?

“What then? I will pray with the spirit, I will pray also with the mind; I will sing a psalm with the spirit, I will sing a psalm also with the mind.” He says this because when someone speaks in a language he knows, he prays both with the spirit and with the mind; for not only does his spirit, which I said is given in baptism, know what is prayed, but the soul too is likewise not ignorant, also of the psalm.

“Otherwise, if you bless with the spirit”, that is, if you speak the praise of God in a tongue unknown to the hearers, “who fills the place of the unlearned? How will he say Amen to your blessing, since he does not know what you say?” For the unskilled, hearing what he does not understand, does not know the end of the prayer, and does not answer Amen, that is, 'true', so that the blessing may be confirmed. For the confirmation of the prayer is fulfilled through those who answer Amen, so that all that has been said may be confirmed in the hearers' minds by the testimony of truth.

“For you indeed give thanks well.” He speaks of one who speaks things known to himself, because he knows what he says. “But the other is not built up.” If you come together to build up the church, things should be said which the hearers understand. For what use is it that someone speaks in a tongue which he alone knows, so that one who hears profits nothing? Therefore he ought to keep silent in church, so that those may speak who benefit the hearers.

“I thank my God that I speak in the tongue of all of you.” Since above he said that speaking in tongues is a gift of the Holy Spirit, he therefore refers to God the fact that he spoke in the tongue of all. And lest he seem to say this as a rival out of envy, he shows that he speaks in the tongues of all of them, and that it is not of great benefit.

“But in church”, he says, “I would rather speak five words through the law, so as to build up others too, than ten thousand words in a tongue.” He says it is more useful to speak in few words, with openness of speech, what all understand, than to have a long discourse in obscurity. These were from among the Hebrews, who sometimes used the Syriac tongue, mostly Hebrew, in their discourses or offerings, for commendation. For they gloried in being called Hebrews because of Abraham's merit, which the same Apostle held as nothing, saying: “But far be it from me to glory except in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ” (Gal 6:14). Some, imitating these, preferred to speak in church to the people in a tongue unknown to themselves rather than in their own.

“Brothers, do not become children in understanding; but be little children in malice, so that you may be perfect in understanding.” He wants them to be perfect, so that they may know what is necessary for the instruction of the church; so that, withdrawing from malice and errors, they might devote themselves to what serves the benefit of the brothers. For he is perfect in understanding who acts so as to benefit someone, especially a brother.

“For in the law it is written: In other tongues and with other lips I will speak to this people, and not even so will they hear me, says the Lord” (Isa 28:11). The Lord said this of those whom he foreknew would not believe even the Saviour. For to speak in other tongues and with other lips is to preach the new covenant, as the prophet Jeremiah says: “Behold, the days will come, says the Lord, and I will complete for the house of Israel and the house of Judah a new covenant, not according to what I appointed for their fathers” (Jer 31:31); that is, to speak, with the reckoning changed, otherwise than the words of the old law run: when they hear that the sabbath is loosed, the new moons done away, circumcision ceasing, sacrifices changed, foods long forbidden permitted to be eaten, Christ preached as God from God; this is to speak in other tongues and with other lips; and not even so were the faithless willing to obey God. It can also be understood thus: since many of the Jews were ill-disposed, and therefore it was not fitting to speak the gospel to them openly, he spoke to them in parables; and, understanding that it was not revealed to them because they were evil, not even so did they correct themselves, so as to make themselves worthy, by explanation, to hear the words of God. Hence the disciples say to the Lord: “Lord, why do you speak to them in parables?” (Matt 13:10). And the Lord: “Because to you”, he says, “it is given to know the mystery of the kingdom of God, but to them not; so that seeing they may not see, and hearing they may not understand” (Matt 13:11, 13); lest the unworthy should receive salvation; and noticing that this was done according to their merits, not even so were they converted and willing to satisfy God.

“So tongues are for a sign.” That is, the words of God were obscured by the veil of an unknown tongue, so that they might not be seen by the faithless; so that when unknown tongues are heard, it may be a sign that it was done because of faithlessness, lest the hearer understand. “Not for those who believe, but for unbelievers”: this is what he said, that tongues serve to hide the meaning from unbelievers. “But prophecy is not for unbelievers, but for those who believe.” That is, it does not befit the faithful to hear tongues which they do not understand; but the unbelievers, who are not worthy to understand, as the prophet Isaiah says: “Go and say to this people: You will hear with the ear and not understand”, and so on.

“If the whole church comes together in one place and all speak in tongues, and unbelievers and unlearned people come in, will they not say that you are mad?” It is plain that if all speak in different tongues, a disorderly uproar of the people arises, like that of someone suffering frenzy.

“But if all prophesy, and some unbeliever or unlearned person comes in, he is rebuked by all, he is convicted by all, the secrets of his heart become manifest; and then, falling on his face, he will worship God, declaring that God is truly among you.” For when he understands and is understood, hearing God praised and Christ worshipped, he perceives that the religion is true and venerable, in which he sees nothing counterfeit, nothing done in darkness, as among the pagans, whose eyes are veiled, lest, perceiving what they call sacred rites, they see themselves deluded by various vanities. For every imposture seeks darkness and shows the false for the true; therefore among us there is nothing done craftily, nothing under a veil; but simply the one God is praised, from whom are all things, and the one Lord Jesus, through whom are all things (1 Cor 8:6). For if there is no one who understands, or by whom he himself is examined, he can say that it is a kind of deception and vanity, which is chanted in tongues because it would be shameful if revealed.

“What then, brothers? When you come together, each of you has a song”: that is, he utters the praise of God in a song. “He has a teaching”: that is, he has an exposition of meanings through spiritual wisdom. “He has a revelation”: that is, there is in him a prophecy of hidden things, which reaches the mind of all, with the Holy Spirit's favour. “He has a tongue”: so as not to sadden those who could speak in tongues, he permitted them to speak in tongues, but in such a way that interpretation followed. Therefore he says: “He has an interpretation”; so that if an interpreter were present, place would be given for speaking in tongues. “Let all things be done for building up.” This is the conclusion: that nothing be done in vain in the church, and that more effort be made so that the unskilled too may profit, lest any part of the body be darkened by ignorance. Therefore he wants all to come together prepared with various spiritual gifts, so that, watchful in eagerness of mind and exhorting one another, they may strive for the better gifts, for the enlightenment of the brothers.

“If anyone speaks in a tongue, let it be by two, or at most three, and in turn, and let one interpret.” That is, let no more than two or three speak in tongues, and singly, not all at once, lest they seem to be mad. So 'at most three', lest those speaking in tongues and their interpreters take up the day, and the prophets, who are the enlighteners of the whole church, have no time to discourse on the Scriptures.

“But if there is no interpreter, let him keep silent in church, and speak to himself and to God”; that is, let him pray silently within himself, or speak to God, who hears all silent things; for in church that man ought to speak who benefits all.

“Let two or three prophets speak, and let the others examine, or question.” He kept the same measure in saying, “Let two or three speak”, but singly, as above. But he permitted the others to ask about things that perhaps come into doubt, or which someone cannot grasp; for minds differ, so that things may be made clear by a plainer discussion.

“But if something is revealed to another who is seated, let the first be silent”: that is, let the superior yield to the inferior, so that he may speak if he can; and let him not take it ill, because the gift can be given even to one who seems inferior to say what was not granted to the superior. For as everything cannot be granted to one, even the superior, so it cannot be that nothing is imparted to someone, however inferior; so that no one is empty of God's grace.

“For you can all prophesy one by one, so that all may learn and all be exhorted.” This is the tradition of the synagogue, which he wants us to follow; for he writes to Christians, but to those made from the gentiles, not from the Jews; that they dispute sitting, the elders in dignity on chairs, those next on benches, the last on the pavement on mats. If something is revealed to these, he commands that place be given them to speak, and that they not be despised, because they are members of the body.

“And the spirit of the prophets is subject to the prophets.” For since it is one and the same Spirit who pours himself both into the prophets who foretell the future and into those who reveal the Scriptures, according to the reason and nature of the case, he therefore said “is subject to the prophets”, so as to kindle their minds with this hope, that the Spirit helps good efforts. For he comes to the aid of the best desire to set forth the things of God, so as to fulfil the will of the good purpose. For the same was said of the Saviour too: “They drank of the spiritual rock that followed, and the rock was Christ” (1 Cor 10:4); that is, to be subject is the same as to follow; for he followed, so that when human aid failed he might be present to give help. So too the Spirit is said to be subject, in that he helps good efforts when he prompts them; for one who completes another's undertakings seems subject.

“For he is not the author of dissension but of peace.” Since, then, he is the author of peace, as the Saviour says: “My peace I give you, peace I leave you” (John 14:27), let no one prevent another from speaking, nor ought anyone to resist the speaker out of zeal for contradiction, lest discord arise in the body. For those who are called in peace ought to strive for patience, lest the rights of peace be broken. “As I teach in all the churches of the saints.” By this saying he exhorts them to do what he has commanded, since he testifies that he preaches likewise to the churches of the saints.

“Let your women keep silent in church.” Now he hands on what he had passed over; for above he commanded women to be veiled in church; now he shows that they should be quiet and modest, so that it may be worthwhile that they are veiled (1 Cor 11:5). For if man is the image of God, not woman, and she is subject to the man by the law of nature, how much more ought they to be subject in church, out of reverence for him who is his ambassador, who is also the head of the man! “For it is not permitted to them to speak, but to be in silence, as the law also says.” What does the law say? “Your turning shall be to your husband, and he shall rule over you” (Gen 3:16). This is a special law; hence Sarah called Abraham her husband lord; and therefore they are commanded to be in silence, lest the sentence of the aforesaid law be weakened; mindful of which, Sarah was subject to her husband, as has been said. Although they are one flesh, she is commanded to be subject for two reasons: because she is from the man, and because through her sin entered.

“But if they wish to learn anything, let them ask their husbands at home; for it is shameful for women to speak in church.” It is shameful because it is against discipline that in the house of God, who commanded them to be subject to their husbands, they should presume to speak about the law; since they know that there men have the primacy, and that it befits them rather in the house of God to devote themselves to prayers, holding their tongue, and to open their ears, so as to hear how the mercy of God conquered through Christ the death which reigned through them. For if they dare to speak in church, it is a disgrace; for they are veiled precisely so that they may appear humbled; but these show themselves immodest, which is also a reproach to their husbands; for in the insolence of women the husbands too are censured.

“Or did the word of God go out from you, or has it come to you alone?” These are the words of one who rebukes; for they were so puffed up as if this salvation had been promised to them; and as if the other nations were to be called to the faith by their example, or there would be no others who could receive the grace of God when the apostles preached. For they boasted as if they gave a benefit rather than received one in coming to faith; hence he says: “Or has the word of God come to you alone?” For everyone who wishes to buy something which he knows is not sought by others comes to the purchase with a certain disdain, as though about to do the seller a favour. Therefore the Apostle rebukes this in the Corinthians, who showed themselves such through the elation of vanity; as if, had they not obeyed the words of faith, there would be no one to believe; as he says to the Jews: “It was necessary that the words of this life be spoken first to you; but since you rejected them, making yourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we turn to the gentiles” (Acts 13:46).

“If anyone thinks he is a prophet or spiritual, let him recognize that the things I write to you are commands of the Lord.” In saying this he touches the false apostles mentioned above, by whom they had been corrupted, who taught not divine but earthly things according to men's desires. Therefore he says here that he hands on nothing of his own, but the Lord's; so that those whom he persuades may seem won for God, not for men; and so he preaches with confidence and constancy, having a free conscience, because he wishes to please not men but God. Hence he does not flatter sinners so that they grow, but admonishes them to stop.

“But if anyone does not know, he will not be known.” Rightly; for one who does not know that what the Apostle speaks is the Lord's will himself not be known by the Lord on the day of judgment, as the Lord says: “Truly I say to you, I do not know you” (Matt 25:12).

“Therefore, brothers, be zealous to prophesy.” Although he rebukes them, and reproves and corrects them in many things because they had withdrawn from his tradition, yet he calls them brothers, because Isaiah says to the people of the Lord: “Say to those who do not walk rightly in my ways: You are our brothers” (Isa 66:5). So to console them after rebukes, he calls them brothers, and exhorts them to zeal for prophecy, so that by constant discussion and explanation of the divine law they might become better instructed, so that they could learn that the preachings of the false apostles were perverse. “And do not forbid speaking in tongues.” This too for love's sake, so that those who can speak in tongues, if an interpreter is present, are not forbidden, lest dissension arise.

“But let all things be done decently and in order”: that is, according to the order mentioned above. That is done decently which is done with peace and discipline.

“Now I make known to you, brothers, the gospel which I preached to you, which you also received, in which you also stand, through which you will also be saved, which I also announced to you in word; you ought to hold it, unless perhaps you believed in vain.” He shows them that if in this matter, which follows, they have been led astray from his tradition, they have lost what they believed; for all the hope of believers is in this meaning: that the dead will rise. When he says “in which you also stand”, he speaks to those who were firm in the faith of this tradition; for he speaks to a mixed audience, so that those who are in the faith may rejoice, and those who waver may grieve at being rebuked, and be corrected.

“For I handed on to you first of all that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures.” He recalls the Scriptures of the Old Testament which sang of the Lord's future passion. For the prophet Isaiah says: “Like a sheep he was led to the slaughter” (Isa 53:7). And among other things: “For his life will be taken from the earth; by the iniquities of my people he was led to death” (Isa 53:8): these are known to have been found in Christ. But because it seems to signify past time, this is no difficulty; for with God, who foreknows all things, nothing is future; therefore he speaks of what is future to us as if it were done. For in the Apocalypse of the apostle John it is said: “The Lamb who was slain from the foundation of the world” (Rev 13:8). For since it cannot turn out otherwise than God knows, it is said to have been done; for it is future to us, not to God, because with God there is nothing that may be called future. And in the Psalm he says: “The Lord reigned from the wood” (Ps 95:10). And Moses signified his cross thus, saying: “Then you will see your life hanging before your eyes, and you will not believe” (Deut 28:66). For this reason, in the same matter, a signification of future time is sometimes set down, lest the perverse maintain it was not said of Christ, if it all signified as past.

“And that he was buried.” No one doubts that the dead man was buried, as the prophet Isaiah says: “And I will give the wicked for his burial” (Isa 53:9). “And that he rose on the third day according to the Scriptures.” All things are enclosed in faith; therefore the Lord's resurrection on the third day was described in the person of the people. For the prophet Hosea says: “After two days he will heal us, and on the third day we shall rise and live in his sight” (Hos 6:2). For none of the faithful denies that all rose in Christ, as all died in Adam. In the same way, in the Psalm, under the person of man, he also signifies Christ, saying: “You have put all things under his feet; with glory and honour you crowned him” (Ps 8:6, 5).

“And that he was seen by Cephas”; that is, by Peter. This the disciples also said to Cleopas and his companion, as in the Gospel according to Luke, that he appeared to Peter alone. “Then to the eleven” (Luke 24:34). This too is contained in the Gospel.

“Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at once.” This he speaks on his own credit. “Of whom most remain until now, but some have fallen asleep.” Of those to whom the Lord appeared after the resurrection, he says that many were then still in the body.

“Then he appeared to James.” He appeared to James individually, as also to Peter; which I think was done so that many appearances might strengthen faith in the resurrection. “Then to all the apostles.” Again he was seen by all the apostles on the mountain where Jesus had appointed them, as the evangelist Matthew relates (Matt 28:16). Before that, in Jerusalem, eight days after his resurrection, that is, on the Lord's day, he came in to the disciples with the doors shut, so that Thomas's mind might be strengthened, as the apostle John says (John 20:26). For on the mountain he is understood to have given them commands.

“But last of all he was seen also by me, as by one untimely born.” He appeared to him first from heaven, then as he prayed in the temple (Acts 9:4; 22:17). He called himself untimely born because, born in Christ out of season, he received the apostleship when Christ had already been taken up into heaven with his flesh.

“For I am the least of all the apostles.” He humbles himself, and ascribes it to the matter of time; for he is lower in time, not in dignity. But since he was also a persecutor, he bows down, saying: “I who am not worthy to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. But by the grace of God I am what I am.” He gives glory to God, who chose him; and he does not defend his dignity for himself, but calls himself unworthy. Hence he truly merits more, knowing that the Lord said: “Whoever humbles himself will be exalted” (Luke 14:11). “And his grace in me was not poor.” He says this because he did not receive a lesser grace in the apostleship on account of having persecuted. “But I laboured more than all of them.” He adds to the case, because he was not only not lessened, but was even afflicted more because of the constancy with which he was strong in Christ; and, not taking this ill, he was made worthier. “Yet not I, but the grace of God with me.” Lest he be thought to have exalted himself boastfully, he at once humbles himself, ascribing this very thing not to himself but rather to God's grace; so as always to refer all glory back to God, for which he rightly deserves to be exalted.

“Whether I or they, so we preach, and so you believed.” This is what he indicated above, that he did not receive a lesser grace in preaching than the other apostles, but one and the same. Hence he rebukes the faithlessness of the Corinthians the more, because, when this belief had been made manifest among all the churches, they had fallen away from this faith and hope, which he added, saying:

“Now if Christ is preached, that he rose from the dead, how do some among you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? But if there is no resurrection of the dead, neither has Christ risen. And if Christ has not risen, our preaching is empty, and your faith is also empty.” These things had been handed on by the false apostles, who asserted that Christ was neither born, nor suffered in the flesh, nor rose again; whom the apostle John also refutes, because they denied that Christ had come in the flesh. Hence he says: “Whoever denies that Christ has come in the flesh is antichrist; and whoever denies the Son does not have the Father either” (1 John 4:3; 2:23). These went about and overturned the faith of some, so that they might not be judged unwise by the wise of the world; for the wise of the age judge it foolish when they hear of the resurrection of the dead. “But if it is true”, he says, “that Christ has not risen, we are false preachers, and your faith is empty.” For they believed this, at the Apostle's preaching, that the dead will rise, and were drawn to faith by this hope. He asserts that this certainly turns to their loss if they believed what will not be; it is shameful for anyone to profess that he has believed what is false. He both strikes them with shame, then, and says their labours are fruitless, if what they had heard from the false apostles is true, that the dead will not rise; which no one at all can bear to hear said of himself; so that, seeing this was against them, they might return to their first faith.

“And we are found to be false witnesses of God, because we have testified against God that he raised Christ, whom he did not raise.” One who asserts that God raised Christ from the dead is a false witness if it did not happen; yet he proclaims God's power, certainly not as an enemy, since he ascribes so wonderful a deed to his power. But if it is true that he raised Christ from the dead, what must be said of this man, who is both a false witness against God and asserts that his work is foolishness? “For if the dead do not rise, neither has Christ risen. And if Christ has not risen, your faith is vain; for you are still in your sins. Then those also who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished.” He frightens them, so that, since no one wishes himself ill, they might grieve at having begun to believe what is against them. For who would not wish to hear that his sins have been forgiven?

“Then those also who have fallen asleep in Christ have perished.” He adds to the fear, because they do not want to think of the departure of their loved ones as perdition. For those who left the world in this hope, or did not fear being killed because they believed they would rise by the example of Christ, have perished, if it is not true. He says to them what, for love of their dead, they do not want to hear, so as to cut off from them what they formerly wished to hear through error.

“If in this life only we are hoping in Christ, we are more to be pitied than all men.” It is plain that we hope in Christ both in this present life and in the future; for Christ does not desert his servants here either, but gives them grace, and in the future they will be in eternal glory. But if there were no hope of the future life, we would be, as he said, more to be pitied than all men. For to what end fasts, vigils, deaths, a clean life, righteousness, mercy, death, if there is to be no reward for these in the future? But unbelievers at least enjoy this life.

“But now Christ has risen from the dead, the firstfruits of those who sleep; for since by man came death, by man also the resurrection of the dead.” In saying this he touches the false prophets, who denied that Christ was born, and therefore that flesh rose; for one who was not born does not die either. He proves that Christ rose from the dead in this way, that he was a man, so that there is no doubt that a man was raised from the dead by God; so that, since death was found by man's sin, the righteousness of Christ merited the resurrection of the dead.

“For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all will be made alive.” He says this because, as Adam by sinning found death and held all who come from his origin so that they are dissolved, so also Christ, not sinning, and thereby conquering death (for one who does not sin conquers death, since death is from sin), acquired life, that is, resurrection, for all who are of his body. Although, then, he granted a general resurrection, so that, as in Adam all, whether just or unjust, die, so in Christ all, believers as well as unbelievers, rise again, though the unbelievers to punishment; still they are seen to be made alive, because they will receive their bodies, no longer to die, but to suffer punishment in them without end, because they refused to believe.

“But each in his own order.” Now he wants to set out the order of the resurrection, lest they think it a fable because it has not yet happened in the rest; he sets out for them the orders and times, when it has been done, and when it is to be, that the dead rise. “Christ the firstfruits.” As in the Acts of the Apostles he testifies that it was written in Moses (Acts 26:23): “That the Christ must suffer, that he first would rise from the dead”, and so on. He rose first, then, to become a pattern for those who believe in him. “Then those who are Christ's, who have believed in his coming.” This is to be understood in two ways; for at his second coming the saints will rise, according to the faith of the Apocalypse of John (Rev 20:12), as also at his first coming, when he rose, many bodies of the saints rose (Matt 27:52), as a public testimony that death had been conquered and despoiled. Under one expression, then, he includes the Lord's two comings.

“Then the end, when he will have handed over the kingdom to God the Father, when he will have abolished every principality and every power and every virtue and every domination. For he must reign until he puts all his enemies under his feet; for he has subjected all things under his feet. The last enemy, death, will be destroyed.” He says this because, the kingdom having been handed over, the end of the world will come, the resurrection having been completed. Some, frightened by the harshness of the expression, while they wish to think piously, as it were, turn away from the proper meaning. For they shudder on hearing the sound of the words, “when he will have handed over the kingdom to God the Father”, thinking that by this handing over, if it is understood according to the sound of the words, he remains empty; as if, if he hands it over, he no longer has it himself; as though the Father, handing over all things to the Son, had emptied himself. For the Lord himself says: “All things have been handed over to me by my Father” (Matt 11:27); and later: “This is eternal life, that they know you, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent” (John 17:3). See, while the Son reigns, the Father also reigns. How, then, should the Son, handing over the kingdom, be believed to empty himself, when the angel says to Mary: “And the Lord God will give him the throne of his father David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there will be no end” (Luke 1:32–33)? And Daniel says of the same kingdom, among other things: “The God of heaven will raise up another kingdom which will never be destroyed; and this kingdom will be eternal” (Dan 2:44). Let no one doubt, then, that the Son will always reign with the Father. But this handing over of the kingdom is this: when all things have been subjected to the Son and have worshipped him as God, death having been destroyed, then the Son will show them that he is not the one from whom all things are, but through whom all things are; and this will be to hand over the kingdom to God the Father: to show that he is the one from whom all fatherhood in heaven and on earth is named (Eph 3:15); and then will be the end. The destruction of death, however, is the resurrection of the dead.

“But when it says, All things are subjected to him, it is clear that he is excepted who subjected all things to him. And when all things have been subjected to him, then the Son himself will also be subjected to him who subjected all things, so that God may be all in all.” The sense is the same, which he now opens, so as to make plain what it is for the Son to hand over the kingdom to God the Father; but he adds this to the sense, that the Father, handing over the kingdom to the Son, did not subject himself to him, as the Son subjected himself to the Father; for it is unfitting that the Father be subjected to the Son. The Father, then, subjected all things to the Son, so that he might be honoured likewise as the Father is honoured. When, therefore, all things have confessed Christ as God, laid beneath his feet, then Christ the Lord himself will also be subjected to God the Father, “so that God may be all in all.” He says this because, when the pride of all principalities and powers and dominions has been crushed, and they have worshipped Christ as God, then Christ too, because of the unique authority of the Father, will show himself to be God indeed, but God from God; so that the lofty and ineffable authority of the one principle may remain. This is for the Son to subject himself to the Father, this is for God to be all in all; for when every creature learns that its head is Christ, and that the head of Christ is God the Father, God the Father is all in all (Phil 2:10–11); that is, so that every creature may think one thing, so that with one voice every tongue of those in heaven and on earth and under the earth may confess that there is one God, from whom are all things. If he had said, “so that God may be in all”, it would be understood that he is indeed in all, but by affection or common sense, yet that those very things are not from him. But when he said “all in all”, he signified that they are both from him and he is in them: from him, because they were created by him; in them, because in the confession of all there is one God. Yet the Son is not subjected to the Father as creation is to the Son.

“Otherwise, what will they do who are baptized for the dead, if the dead do not rise at all? Why then are they baptized for them?” He wishes to show the resurrection of the dead to be so sure and stable that he gives the example of those who were so secure about the future resurrection that they were even baptized for the dead, if death had perhaps overtaken someone; fearing that one who had not been baptized would rise badly or not at all, a living person was dipped in the name of the dead. Hence he added: “Why then are they baptized for them?” By this example he does not approve their deed, but shows their fixed faith in the resurrection.

“Why do we too stand in danger every hour? I die daily for your glory, which I have in the Lord.” By saying “Why do we too stand in danger?” he distinguished persons, showing that those who were baptized for the dead were not catholics. Indeed he said above, “Why are they baptized for them?”, not 'Why are we baptized for them?' For Jephthah too, although in a matter which, being accepted, could not be done, was found faithful, offering his daughter according to his vow, which he had foolishly vowed (Judg 11:39); the deed, then, is not approved, but the perseverance of faith is held up as an example. He recalls the dangers and labours of the preachers, saying: “Why do we too stand in danger?” And it is understood: except because we hope for the future resurrection, as he mentions above. For, secure that true life will follow after this death, they do not fear dangers brought by unbelievers, out of zeal for those whom they grieve to have lost because they believed. He shows, then, the anxiety he had for their salvation, because of the glory promised by the Lord, as it is said in the law: “Lift up your voice like a trumpet; if they hear you, you will gain their souls” (Ezek 33). The Apostle, always anxious, hastened toward this, that his glory with God might grow from the salvation gained of many.

“If, according to man, I fought with beasts at Ephesus, what does it profit me, if the dead do not rise?” That is, if, according to human understanding (which, seeing that it does not fall within the nature of things for flesh once dissolved to be re-formed to life, does not at all believe in a future resurrection of the dead), I did not fear to be offered to beasts and to die, I gained nothing. But it is not so; for, certain of the promised life, he not only did not fear, but even willingly allowed himself to be offered to the beasts, as he says among other things in the Acts of the Apostles: “For I am ready not only to be bound but also to die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus Christ” (Acts 21:13). “Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we will die.” This was said by the prophet Isaiah because of those who, as if there would be nothing after death, cared only for the belly like cattle (Isa 22:13), just like those who were corrupting the Corinthians.

“Do not be deceived: evil conversations corrupt good morals.” He indicates that a good resolve can be overturned by the chatter of evil men; for the constant presence of perverse talk vitiates the mind, and therefore one must beware of them. For whoever wishes to guard the faith he has received ought to avoid noisy objectors, especially at the very beginnings, so as to fulfil what he judged useful.

“Be watchful, be righteous, and do not sin.” He warns them to be watchful, lest, caught by the deception of perverse opinion and led away from the faith, they be corrupted by not believing in the resurrection of the dead. He commanded them to be righteous, so that they might cultivate not only earthly but also heavenly righteousness; for earthly righteousness does not earn merit, just as it does not make guilty. For what great thing is it not to take what belongs to others, since this is a matter of fear? But it is great to give of one's own to one who does not have; this is true righteousness. And he added “that they do not sin”, by which he wanted it understood that he had commanded not temporal but divine righteousness to be kept; for one who keeps heavenly righteousness is without doubt perfect in this present one. “For some have ignorance of God; I speak to your shame.” Those who went about among them, ignorant of God's purpose, said it was foolish to believe that the dead will rise. Therefore he strikes them with shame as imprudent; for they believed those who, having ignorance of God, taught against God's decrees.

“But someone will say: How do the dead rise? With what kind of body do they come?” He said those have ignorance of God whose depraved opinion he quoted, saying: “How do the dead rise? With what kind of body do they come?” To whom he fittingly replied, saying:

“Fool, what you sow is not made alive unless it first dies.” With the natural man he deals not by the authority of the law, by whose examples he would not err if he accepted them, but by the natural reasoning on which he prides himself, so that he does not believe that dissolved and dead bodies rise. For he shows that dead things are restored to life again, and multiplied, so that human error may be confounded.

“And what do you sow? You do not sow the body that is to be, but a bare grain, perhaps of wheat or of some other kind; but God gives it a body as he wills, and to each of the seeds its own body.” If, then, a bare grain is sown, and by God's nod, through the ministry of the elements, it rises clothed in a certain way, bringing with it much increase for human use, why should it not be credible that by God's power the dead can rise, only with substance improved, not multiplied in number? What, then, does the unbeliever ask, with what body the dead rise, when examples go before to support this faith in a resurrection of improved, not lost, substance? For he will receive his own body, in which Adam was created, according to the examples given above.

“Not all flesh is the same flesh; but one is that of men, another of cattle, another the flesh of birds, another of fish.” Since all flesh is from the same mass, whence and how is there such diversity in them, that one material should make different kinds? Let the sophists of the world and the scrutinizers of the stars say now, if they can comprehend what is outside themselves, when they do not know what is within themselves. Indeed all the worldly philosophers, who refused to humble their minds to God's law so as to receive his faith, always asserting different and contrary things, confounded one another with the emptiest disputes; for in none of them was the sign of attested truth recognized, which, set before words, would commend the teaching, as God decreed for our discipline, which is proved not by words but by power, which words cannot resist. As, then, from one material the flesh of living things is different, so too men of one flesh will be different in dignity in the resurrection; so that each will appear such as his merit was; since even here we see a diversity of bodies.

“And there are heavenly bodies and earthly bodies, but the glory of the heavenly is one, and that of the earthly another.” Heavenly bodies are those of the risen; earthly bodies, those before they die or rise again; so that, since Christ is heavenly, bodies are called heavenly from him; but from Adam, because he is earthly, earthly bodies.

“One is the brightness of the sun, another the brightness of the moon, and another the brightness of the stars; for star differs from star in brightness.” He uses a comparison from one nature to give an account of an undivided substance; for as the sun and moon and stars, though of one nature, are of different brightness, so too men, though of one kind, will be unlike in glory according to merit; so that the dignity of those who have the hundredfold number, who, to be perfect, strove for the first rank, will be equal to the brightness of the sun; of whom it was said: “Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father” (Matt 13:43). To the brightness of the moon are to be compared those who by good works purchased the sixtyfold number, so as to have the merit of the second rank. To the brighter stars are to be compared the merits of those who by righteous labours sought the thirtyfold number, the dignity of the third rank. But to the following stars, which are midway between the bright and the dimmer, are to be fitted sinful men, who chose to attain the honour of none of the three ranks. The resurrection of the faithless, however, is like the dark stars, the last of all; for, having followed error, they are to be compared to stars that lead into error, as the apostle Jude says in his letter (Jude 13). For unbelief cannot have a bright resurrection; for as a coal covered with its ash is darkened, so these too, surrounded by the darkness of error through their faithlessness, will lack light.

“So will be the resurrection of the dead.” He gives examples so that there may be no doubt that there will be a resurrection of the dead, so that, the reasoning accepted, no one may hesitate. “It is sown in corruption; it will rise in incorruption.” To sow is to bury, so that it decays; but to rise in incorruption is that, once raised, it cannot decay, but has the brightness of immortality.

“It is sown in dishonour; it will rise in glory.” It is sown in dishonour because, when it is laid in a gloomy place, it becomes fetid and swarms with worms; but it will rise in glory because, raised, it will both be light and suffer no injury of squalor. “It is sown in weakness; it will rise in power.” It is sown in weakness because it is immobile and ungovernable; but it will rise in power, because it will then be wholly one and vigorous.

“It is sown an animal body; it will rise a spiritual body. If there is an animal body, there is also a spiritual one.” It is an animal body while it is sustained by food so as to live; but spiritual when it will need none of these things, changed into life. All the things said above are enclosed in this sense; for nothing else is contained in what precedes except that the animal body dies, and will rise spiritual, which will no longer eat, nor drink, nor be weak, nor be fetid, nor foul by nature.

“The first man Adam was made into a living soul.” This was said in Genesis (Gen 2:7), because, having received the spirit of God's breath, man was made into a living soul; for the function of the spirit is to animate the body, yet in such a way that it does not have continuous life unless it uses the help of food and drink. “But the last Adam into a life-giving spirit”: that is, so that he who before had been made into a soul was made into spirit through the resurrection, so that he cannot die, because he will be wholly living.

“But the spiritual is not first”; because the animal is from Adam, but the spiritual through Christ and the resurrection of the dead.

“The first man was from the earth, earthly; the second man from heaven, heavenly. As the earthly one is, such are the earthly; and as the heavenly one is, such are the heavenly.” The first man, Adam, is from the earth, temporal, whom death succeeds; the second man is Christ from heaven, who, having risen, knows no death. “As that earthly one is, such are the earthly”: that is, because the earthly is mortal, the earthly too are mortal; for Adam by sinning found death, so that all from him are mortal. “And as the heavenly one is, such are the heavenly”: that is, because Christ did not sin, conquering death, he is heavenly; so let those who believe in him be; although unbelievers too will be spiritual, but like spiritual wickednesses, so as to be dark. For he is now speaking of the saints, who will rise to glory; for as those who do not believe have already been judged, so those who believe are already called heavenly (John 3:18).

“Therefore, as we have borne the image of the earthly one, let us also bear the image of this heavenly one”: that is, as we had the form of mortality through Adam's sin, made slaves of sin, so let us have the form of life through the Saviour's righteousness, made slaves of righteousness, not of the world, but of God, while we do the things that are worthy of immortality.

“Now this I say, brothers, that flesh and blood cannot possess the kingdom of God.” He wants 'flesh' to be understood as faithlessness, 'blood' as a shameful and luxurious life, because this desire is born from the heat of the blood; so as to show that not only does the unbeliever not have a worthy resurrection, but also the one who obeys the desires and vices of the flesh. He warns and instructs, then, by what means we may deserve to obtain the kingdom of heaven. “Nor will corruption possess incorruption.” He says this because corruption and licentiousness of life must suffer punishment. For he set 'corruption' for suffering; for it is agreed that all men will rise immortal.

“Behold, I tell you a mystery: we shall all indeed rise”; that is, believers as well as unbelievers. “But we shall not all be changed.” Now he indicates each one's merit in the resurrection, what it will be in individuals.

“In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye”, that is, quickly, without any delay. “At the last trumpet.” It is 'last' because the last war is waged against the demons, and the principalities and powers, and the devil himself. For this will happen after the thousand years during which the Saviour will reign here, the Antichrist having been destroyed, when Satan will be let out of his prison to lead astray the nations Gog and Magog, who are demons, so that they may fight against the camp of the saints; for temporal men will not be able to fight against eternal ones. For the apostle John too says: “I saw Michael and his angels in heaven fighting against the dragon and his angels, who is the devil and Satan” (Rev 20:7; 12:7). And so he says here “the last trumpet”, because the battle with him was not fought once only; for in the Antichrist too, and the false prophets who did signs and wonders before him, he was also the victor, and in this place the last battle will be fought against him, so that he may now be sent into Gehenna. And the Saviour says among other things: “Now the ruler of this world will be cast down” (John 12:31). Then, therefore, and often he has been conquered, as the prophet Isaiah says: “How Lucifer, who rose in the morning, has fallen from heaven!” (Isa 14:12). “For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will rise incorrupt, and we shall be changed.” For while sinners and the impious rise, the saints will be changed into brightness; so that the flesh becomes spiritual with glory, as if lead became gold. For the saints will rise at the Lord's coming, as he said above:

“Christ the firstfruits; then those who are Christ's at his coming”, as is contained in the Apocalypse; for sinners are not Christ's, who hear from the Lord: “I do not know you” (Matt 7:23). For in the first Psalm too it is written: “Therefore the ungodly will not rise in the judgment, nor sinners in the council of the righteous” (Ps 1:5). For there is nothing to be inquired of the ungodly; but they will rise for this, to perish, seeing that what they refused to believe is true; and to perish is to be estranged from God, as he says to the Romans: “For whoever have sinned without the law will perish without the law; and whoever have sinned in the law will be judged by the law” (Rom 2:12); and therefore sinners will be judged; for they are unworthy to rise with the saints, as it says: “nor sinners in the council of the righteous.”

“For this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal put on immortality.” Above he said, “and the dead will rise incorrupt”, that is, they will be immortal, yet not impassible; for these whom he speaks of will suffer punishments according to the kinds of their offences, so that they come out from there when the debt is paid; but the impious are tormented with eternal punishment; for he says: “Whoever does not believe has already been judged” (John 3:18). Hence the prophet Isaiah too says: “Their fire will not be quenched, and their worm will not die” (Isa 66:24). At the Lord's coming, however, the saints will also rise, and those who are found alive will be caught up to meet the Lord in the air, suffering death as a kind of sleep; for in the very catching up they will have both death and resurrection, as the same Apostle writes to the Thessalonians (1 Thess 4:16–17). For at the time of the Antichrist the rest of the gentiles will be either apostates, or guilty, or in hiding, or placed under punishment, whom the Lord Jesus, with their leader the Antichrist, will slay at his coming with the breath of his mouth (2 Thess 2:8), that is, by his command they will be burned with fire by the angels of his power. “But when this mortal has put on immortality, then the word that is written will come to pass: Death is swallowed up in victory. Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” For after the resurrection of the impious and sinners, death will be swallowed up in victory. For these are the words of one who mocks, saying: “Where, O death, is your victory? Where, O death, is your sting?” For the victory over conquered death is the resurrection of the dead; but death is the devil, who is mocked; and he is called contentious because, through pride, though unequal in strength, he resisted. When, therefore, overcome, he is destroyed and stripped of his spoils, he is reproached for having fought against himself.

“But the sting of death is sin.” By 'sting' he signifies authority, because death received authority through sin; as if, had there been no sin, the devil would have grown numb, and there would be no death. “And the power of sin is the law.” The law is the power of sin because sin would not be imputed if there were no law.

“But thanks be to God, who has given us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ.” He says that the Saviour's triumph has benefited us; for what the Saviour did, he certainly did not do for himself, but for us. Therefore the victory is ours; for this is why he became man while remaining God: so that, conquering the devil by not committing sin, he might win victory for us, who were held in death because of sin; so that the devil, conquered when Christ, who had committed no sin, was killed, might lose all whom he held because of sin. For while he insults a man, he became guilty, and so the handwriting was blotted out, that is, the sentence by which the human race was held in death was cancelled, so that it was rescued, and souls were led into heaven; so that they were taken from him not by power but by justice, by God through our Lord Jesus Christ.

“Therefore, my beloved brothers, be steadfast and immovable, always abounding in work, knowing that your labour is not in vain in the Lord.” Having set out all the things necessary for ordering church teaching, and having shown what is to be avoided and what followed, he exhorts them now to be fixed in good, and always ready and abundant in the works that bear fruit with the Lord; because, through these things that have been set out, they will in future receive the reward of good work from the Lord, so that they may not be overturned by perverse conversations.

“Now concerning the collections that are made for the saints, as I directed the churches of Galatia, so do you also. On the first day of the week let each of you put aside by himself, storing up whatever he wishes, so that collections are not made when I come.” He commands the collection to be made on the Lord's day, as he had arranged in the other churches; so that on the day on which the Lord rose, his people might be gathered for the praise and glory of God, death having been conquered; and then funds should be gathered for the service of the saints, who were suffering affliction for the Lord's name through the zeal of gentiles or Jews, who did not allow them to preach the grace of God under the name of Christ; so that they might have relief from those for whose sake they were afflicted. Every Lord's day, then, he commands the people to be gathered and to bring together, as they wished, for the gifts of God, and for each to lay this aside with himself as in a treasury; so that when the Apostle came it would be found ready for the necessary uses; for what is collected little by little is not burdensome, and is found to be much.

“And when I come, whomever you approve by letters, these I will send to carry your gift to Jerusalem.” This relief had a double benefit, as it still has now: that it benefited both the saints mentioned above and the poor placed in the church; it benefits both the needs of the elders and the needy even now. He says that by letter he sends those whom they have chosen as fit for the administration; for letters give testimony for those sent, so that they may be received with favour.

“But if it is worthwhile that I go too, they will go with me.” He says this: if the collection is abundant, he too can go; for it is fitting and so necessary that, if he himself goes, he carry much with him for the relief of the saints. This is what he indicates to the Romans, saying: “For if the gentiles have shared in their spiritual things, they ought also to minister to them in carnal things” (Rom 15:27); for they were from the Jews, of whom the Lord says that salvation is from the Jews, who were in great odium at Jerusalem among the unbelieving Jews.

“But I will come to you when I have passed through Macedonia; and with you I shall perhaps remain, or even spend the winter, so that you may send me on wherever I go.” After all his instruction, to make them glad, he promised them his coming, by which he confirms all his admonitions with which he corrects them all the more. One who hears that the one from whom he received the law is coming will be more careful, lest he blush when he arrives.

“For I do not want to see you now in passing.” Knowing that he had many things to deal with among them, he does not want to see them in passing, and, lest they be saddened, he promises to stay a long time with them; for what he does, he does with foresight. “For I hope to remain with you for some time, if the Lord permits.” If the Lord: for then the Lord permits him to stay with them, he says “permits”, if they show themselves worthy, amending the vices which he rebukes in them.

“But I will remain at Ephesus until Pentecost; for a great and effective door has opened to me, and there are many adversaries.” He showed why he had remained at Ephesus; for he had found there hearts thirsting for God's grace, into which to pour the mystery of Christ. But because the devil is always restless and envious of those who desire God, he added: “and there are many adversaries”; for the more people were found fit for faith, the more there was no lack of those who were jealous, contradicting and opposing the Lord's teaching.

“Now if Timothy comes, see that he is with you without fear; for he does the work of the Lord, as I also do. So let no one despise him.” Although Timothy preached what he had received from the Apostle, and was a capable evangelist, yet because he was not of the same authority, he commends him; lest perhaps by those in the congregation who disagreed he not be received as he deserved, and his coming achieve nothing for their salvation. For the gentiles too could be stirred to sedition and discord among the people, taking an occasion to rush upon Timothy; therefore, “let no one despise him, because he does the work of the Lord”, he says, “as I also do”; that is, so that he might be received with the authority by which he was an apostle; for he himself was a bishop. “Send him on in peace, so that he may come to me; for I am expecting him with the brothers.” He mentions Timothy's great merit, so that he not only commands that he be honoured among them, but shows that he is to be escorted with deference as an apostle of the Lord; so that he himself too was expecting him with the brothers for the gospel of Christ. “Now concerning our brother Apollos, I inform you that I begged him much to come to you with the brothers; and it was not at all his will to come now. But he will come when it is opportune.” By saying this he shows that he both satisfied their wish or request, when he showed them his own desire, and excused Apollos, since he did not declare why he did not go to them; yet in such a way that he did not excuse him altogether, but postponed it. It can also be understood thus: that through Apollos he touches them, indicating that Apollos was unwilling to go to them because they were at odds; so that, hearing this, they might strive for peace; and that he therefore said of Timothy, “See that he is with you without fear”, because some who had been sent had not been well received; and therefore Apollos would come when they were in concord.

“Be watchful, stand firm in faith, act manfully, be strengthened; let all your things be done in love.” “Be watchful”, he says, lest they be deceived in faith. “Act manfully”: this is to warn them to be strong concerning what had been handed on to them, not like children who do not know what to follow. “Be strengthened”: so that they may be robust in word as well as in deed; for profession and good acts make people perfect. He warns that these very things be done in love; for things done with love have the fear of God and zeal; for whatever is done with offence to a brother has no fruit. For some are to be called forward to the good, not saddened; for instance, if you do not show mercy, by dissuading another, or are inhuman, or brand others, or eat something, insulting one who abstains from it, so as to make a scruple for him. All things are to be done so that there is exhortation to better things, not insult; and then there is peace. Hence the Lord says: “By this it is known whether you are my disciples, if you love one another” (John 13:35); but where there is strife and dissension, there is no love.

“Now I beseech you, brothers: you know the household of Stephanas and Fortunatus, that they are the firstfruits of Achaia, and have appointed themselves to the service of the saints; that you also be subject to such, and to everyone who works with them and labours.” The Achaeans are Corinthians; and therefore he speaks to them about these, through whom he calls them to such work; for they are from among them. For this is a great thing among Christians, that, avarice trampled underfoot, they bestow from their labours on those who do not have, made imitators of God the Father, who is rich in mercy. But when he says “that you be subject to such”, he exhorts them all the more, so that, becoming rivals in this work, they themselves may have others subject to them.

“I rejoice at the presence of Stephanas and Fortunatus and Achaicus, because they have supplied what was lacking from you. For they refreshed both my spirit and yours. Recognize, then, those who are such.” For the contribution which he says is made for the saints is one thing, and to repay a livelihood to the ministers of the gospel is another, as the Lord says: “For the labourer is worthy of his wages” (Luke 10:7). For he indicates that the household of Stephanas was devoted in both respects, both in the service of the saints and toward those who served the churches; so that they benefited the Apostle together with the brothers Fortunatus and Achaicus, so that those who were from among them also benefited. Hence he says: “For they refreshed both my spirit and yours.” And since the Apostle refuses to accept from these (for he says: “This boasting of mine will not be broken in the regions of Achaia”), how did they refresh both his spirit and theirs? But I believe his spirit was refreshed in those whom they had benefited; for he says that what benefits those he wished was given to himself. “Recognize, then, those who are such”: that is, imitate them.

“The churches of Asia greet you.” By their greeting he reminds them to become like those who are of one province. “Aquila and Priscilla greet you in the Lord, with the church in their house.” He mentions two churches, public and domestic: he calls public that in which all assemble; domestic that in which people gather through friendship. Wherever presbyters celebrate the solemn rites, it is called a church.

“All the brothers greet you.” He lifts up their spirits when he shows that all these are lovers of them. “Greet one another with a holy kiss.” The holy kiss is a sign of peace, in which he teaches that, discord removed, they should cling to one another.

“The greeting in my hand, Paul's.” He shows that he signed this letter, and added what the words of the signature are, saying:

“If anyone does not love the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema maranatha”, which means: if anyone does not love the Lord Jesus, who has come, let him be cut off. For maranatha means 'the Lord has come'. This is because of the Jews who said that Jesus had not come; these, then, are anathema from the Lord who has come.

“The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. My love be with you all in Christ Jesus.” He put such a signature because of those who, while they pursued dissension, did not love the Lord Jesus; since they said: “I am of Paul, I of Apollos, and I of Cephas” (1 Cor 1:12). For whoever loves Christ does not give glory to men, because there is no hope in men. “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you”; and it is understood, 'you who love the Lord Jesus'. And since they did not love one another, he therefore says this: “My love be with you all in Christ Jesus”; so that they might learn to love themselves with the grace with which they were loved by the Apostle, not with carnal affection, but in Christ Jesus.